Purpose. Clothing is a symbol to which meanings are assigned by wearer, observer, or both (Darden & Worden, 1991). T-shirts imprinted with alcohol brand names have communication potential from perspective of wearer and observer. Alcohol advertisements create images of alcohol users who are independent, attractive, sociable, risktakers--images related to adolescents' developmental tasks. A leading activity of adolescence, socializing, relates to the developmental task of forming new peer relations (Klaczynski, 1990). The purpose of this study was to examine meanings assigned by observers to an adolescent wearing an alcohol promotional t-shirt.

Procedure. A male and female adolescent were photographed wearing t-shirts with and without an alcohol brand name. All other aspects of the photographs were the same. Participants received a folder with one photograph (a male or female wearing an alcohol or a plain t-shirt) and recorded impressions of the person for 14 personal traits and 18 behaviors. M/ANOVA were used to explore meanings assigned by observers to an adolescent wearing an alcohol promotional t-shirt.

Findings. Participants were university students (41 females, 53 males; mean age = 21.4). MANOVA revealed main effects for t-shirt on impressions of personal traits, F (14, 77) = 1.92, p < .04, and behaviors, F (18, 73) = 2.96, p <.001. ANOVA revealed that the adolescent wearing an alcohol t-shirt (vs. a plain t-shirt) was rated as less independent, less responsible, less honest, less reliable, less religious, less likely to be on time, less likely to do well in school, more likely to smoke, more likely to be a party animal, more likely to drink, and more likely to be a risktaker.

Implications. The meanings assigned to adolescents wearing alcohol promotional t-shirts reflect statistics showing a relationship between drinking and traits such as being less responsible, less reliable, less independent, less religious, and less honest. Behaviors such as smoking, doing less well in school, taking risks, and being a party animal are also related to adolescent drinking. Being viewed as a risktaker who is likely to smoke, drink and be a party animal may be important to adolescents who are working on developmental tasks related to peer relations but that image may have unintended outcomes. Adolescents do not select a friendship group as much as they are thrust into one by virtue of their interests and reputation among peers (Brown, 1990). The group into which an adolescent is thrust may depend on a reputation based on wearing an alcohol t-shirt.

References.

Brown, B. (1990). Peer groups and peer cultures. In At the threshold: The developing adolescent, edited by S. Feldman and G. Elliott, 171-196. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

Darden, D., & Worden, S. (1991). Identity announcement in mass society: The t-shirt. Sociological Spectrum, 11(1), 67-79.

Klaczynski, P. (1990). Cultural-developmental tasks and adolescent development: Theoretical and methodological considerations. Adolescence, 25(100), 811-823.

COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATIONS AMONG FCS TEACHERS

Bernice A. Dodor and Cheryl O. Hausafus

Iowa State University

Introduction. Teaching has been characterized as a culture of isolation (Schlagel, et al., 1996). For some specialized subject areas such as family and consumer sciences, often only one teacher is found in a school building or even a school district. Practicing family and consumer sciences teachers often do not have access to ongoing development and support from peers. These teachers may be barred from growing professionally and as a result may leave the teaching profession after a few years. A recent solution involves the establishment of computer networks linking teachers and educators together through telecommunications. Teachers have opportunities to post questions and communicate ideas through electronic bulletin boards (Casey, 1997).

Purpose. This study explored current uses of electronic bulletin boards among family and consumer sciences teachers. Research questions involving frequency, topics, and contents of message threads were formulated to analyze the interactions on family and consumer sciences electronic bulletin boards.

Procedure. The study employed a pluralistic approach (Burns & Bush, 2000), primarily using interpretive research to examine the contents of messages that facilitated collaborative reflective conversation on the electronic bulletin boards. Three family and consumer sciences electronic bulletin boards (e-groups) -- North Carolina FCS, FCS work and family, and FCS teachers -- available for free membership through Yahoo (http://www.groups.yahoo.com) were selected for the study. Criteria for selection included e-groups with 20 or more members, registered on the worldwide web, and posting messages over three consecutive months.

The communication transcripts (message threads) on the electronic bulletin boards were downloaded over one school year (from August 2000 to July 2001), and analyzed using the constant comparative method (Glaser, 1978). Using the archive created for each bulletin board, messages were retrieved on a monthly basis. The full text of the message threads were entered into the QSR NUD*IST 4 software system for data analysis. In addition, supporting data were gathered from 12 key informants (e-group moderators, and most active members for each board) selected using non-random purposive sampling to complete a survey through private email about the attitude, perception, and experience of using electronic bulletin boards.

Findings. Analysis of the message transcripts and survey instruments reveal that the use of electronic bulletin boards afforded the members the opportunity to discuss and reflect on issues that were important to their teaching practice and professional development. Family and consumer sciences professionals shared pedagogical resources, ideas, reflections, and dialogue on teaching, and updates in the field of family and consumer sciences. Geographical and time constraints were overcome because messages were sent from any place at any time to members, thus assuaging the major obstacle to mentoring.

In addition, the openness of the electronic bulletin boards with absence of status differences or facial cues enabled the more timid or reflective members to feel comfortable sharing their ideas. Certain topics promoted discourse on all three electronic bulletin boards indicating that FCS teachers experienced similar situations and used the electronic bulletin boards to share and discuss these experiences. Message postings showed that North Carolina State Department of Education consultants contributed to the large amount of dialogue observed on the North Carolina family and consumer sciences electronic bulletin board.

Implications. Implications for family and consumer sciences teachers and educators included the importance of continuous participation in family and consumer sciences electronic communication networks, opportunities for electronic mentoring, and alleviation of professional isolation in the field.

References.

Burns, A. C., & Bush, R. F. (2000). Marketing research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Casey, J. (1997). Teacher Net: Building a new cadre of technology using teachers. Retrieved September 20, 2000 from http://www.wce.wwu.edu/necccd/necchtml/proceeds/casey/proceed.htm.

Glaser, B. (1978). Theoretical sensitivity: Advances in the methodology of grounded theory. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.

Schlagel, B., Trathen, W., & Blanton, W. (1996). Structuring telecommunication to create instructional conversation about student teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 47(3), 175–183.

RESIDENTS IN THREE MID-WESTERN MEAT PACKING COMMUNITIES

Sheran L. Cramer, Rochelle Dalla, and Heather Kennedy

University of Nebraska Lincoln

Purpose. Economic strain has been identified as one of the four components of economic distress. The increasing influx of immigrants and migrants into small to medium sized communities, brought about by the need for workers within the meat-packing industry is a stressor for the immigrants, long-term residents and the larger community. The purpose of this study is to examine economics stress of the immigrant/ migrant population as well as long term residents. A Secondary purpose is to assess the validity of the Family Economics Strain Scale as a measure of economic strain for immigrant/migrant families. The information reported here is part of a larger study which examined the economic, physical, and social impacts of the meat-packing industry in three rural Mid-Western communities. Data were collected through an interview process. Long-term residents and immigrants were identified by a community coordinator and were interviewed at two different time spans.

Procedure. The data presented here represents two waves of data collection and consists of 88 participants, 45 long-term residents and 43 immigrants per wave. Survey items were translated into Spanish. Interpreters were used to collect the information from the immigrants. The Family Economic Strain Scale, originally developed and evaluated on single parent families (Hilton and Devall, 1997) was analyzed by Cronbach=s alpha reliability coefficient, to determine reliability of the scale for use with immigrants. The coefficient revealed a highly reliable measure for use with this population.

Findings. A profile of the three communities is developed along with a profile of the immigrants and long-term residents of the communities. Analysis of mean scores for each of the 25 items on the Family Economic Strain Scale resulted in the identification of several items as most prevalent in contributing to economic strain for long-term residents. These included frequency of worry about financial matters, affording needed kind of transportation, and sense of security from financial situation. For immigrants, no definite pattern emerged; factors varied by community. Factors that seemed to contribute to economic strain among immigrants included: worrying about financial matters, arguing with other family members about how money is spent, getting needed medical care due to expenses, putting off buying of needed clothing due to expense, worry about providing a safe neighborhood, and concern about whether financial situation would improve over the next year. T-tests for each individual item revealed additional differences between long-term residents and immigrants and between the different communities. This study identifies predominant areas of financial strain, both among long-term community residents and immigrants.

Implications. This information provides a basis for the development of educational materials and programs for communities where a large influx of immigrants/migrants is found. The identification of areas causing economic strain, specific to long term residents and immigrants, can provide a more focused approach to program planning thus assisting extension educators, military financial counselors, and others financial educators/ counselors in working with this clientele. Professionals can use this information as a tool in educating decision and policy makers about strategies that could assist in the acculturation of varying cultures into a community more quickly resulting in lessened distress, from economic strain, for families. Stronger, vibrant, viable communities are the ultimate impact.

Reference.

Hilton, J.M., & Devall, E.L., (1997). Journal of Family and Economics Issues 18, 3, 247-269.

WORKING WOMEN’S SOCIODEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS ACROSS STAGES OF ADULT DEVELOPMENT

Mixon Ware-Hargis, Priscilla White Blanton and Virginia W. Kupritz

University of Tennessee

Women now constitute a majority in the labor force of the United States. Family and work issues, along with individual developmental issues in adulthood, present challenges for many of these women. These challenges impact the individual and her family, and also employers and the workplace, social and economic issues, and policy issues at the micro-and macro-levels of society.

The gender and longevity revolutions occurring in the American workforce give rise to new questions pertaining to policy decisions and human resource development practices with lifespan implications. Thus, it is important to consider both the developmental issues of women across the stages of adulthood and the socio-demographic characteristics of working women to effect any meaningful social and economic agenda benefiting women, their families, their employers, their communities, and society at large. Before these questions can be addressed, it is important to know what the women who now make up more than 50% of the workforce look like.

This exploratory study of business and professional women was undertaken to gain insight into the socio-demographic characteristics, work attitudes, concerns, and special issues confronting working women across three stages of adulthood. The survey, Work and Retirement: A Survey of Working Women, was distributed to 512 members of a business and professional women’s organization in four southeastern states. Respondents were divided into three groups based on age: Early adulthood (age 44 and younger); middle adulthood (ages 45 through 58); and late middle age and older working women (ages 59 through 74). They were compared across the cohorts by marital status and educational level; role identify as career and professional women; and participation in labor force.

Findings indicate more similarities than dissimilarities among women across adulthood. However, age-related concerns emerged as a consideration in each of the three cohorts. This research adds to our understanding of how working women perceive their jobs and careers, and their perceptions about retirement and age-related needs. The socio-demographic characteristics of these women in three different stages of adulthood highlight concerns, special issues, and opportunities for organizational change. The results of the study provide a foundation for future inquiry into age and gender sensitive planning for an improved workplace, and for better addressing the needs of maturing women in the workforce.

Implications of the study include a need for family and consumer science specialists, family life educators, and others in the field of family practice to work with women, employers and policy-making bodies to respond to the need for new policies and practices in keeping with the realities of women’s work and other roles throughout the life course. Rosie the Riveter may be well past retirement age, but her daughters and granddaughters have swelled the workforce, expanding the ranks of working women in every field and profession. Three cohorts of women now work side-by-side, providing opportunities for research into both gender- and age-related work and family issues. The 20^th century gave women the right to vote; the 21^st century must now address women’s economic, work, and family issues.

FOCUS GROUPS IDENTIFY CONSUMER DIFFERENCES AND MISCONCEPTIONS REGARDING HOME REFRIGERATION KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES*

Sandria L. Godwin, Leslie Speller-Henderson, Richard J Coppings and Lou Pearson

Tennessee State University

Purpose. Although proper cooling of foods is known to reduce spoilage and help prevent foodborne illness, little is known about the actual refrigeration practices of American consumers. The overall goal of this project is to determine the food refrigeration knowledge and practices of consumers. In Phase I of the study focus groups were conducted to determine consumer perceptions of food refrigeration requirements and allow researchers to gain insight into refrigeration practices used by consumers in their homes.

Procedures. Persons from three ethnic groups, African-American, Hispanic, and Caucasian, participated in the eight focus groups, which were conducted in three cities in northern and middle Tennessee. Each group addressed the following subject areas: items stored in refrigerators, perceptions and knowledge of food safety, food thawing practices, knowledge of food storage, barriers to proper refrigeration, and refrigeration temperatures. Many situational statements were used to get participant responses. Following each group a transcript was generated from duplicate recordings of the sessions. Notes taken by an observer and those placed on an easel by the moderator were used for clarification of responses when needed during transcription.

Findings. Initial discussion items revealed that the participants were aware of the possibility of food spoilage with extended storage and of the potential danger of contracting a foodborne illness from improperly handled foods; however they used a wide variety of techniques to determine when a food was no longer safe to eat. Most participants had experienced a food-borne illness at some time and knew what the common symptoms were. Participants seemed highly knowledgeable about general food safety items. They were less secure when the questions were specifically about refrigeration and related practices. Researchers got the impression that the participants’ don’t know what is in their refrigerators with any certainty or how long the food has been there. Few participants knew what the temperature of the refrigerator should be and no one had an actual thermometer in their refrigerator. Most thought the “dial” in the back was a thermometer and seemed to judge the temperature of their refrigerators from everyday experience, such as “I feel the milk to see if it is cold”. Thawing practices were also varied and included several methods that placed them at high risk for food-borne illness.

Implications. It is apparent that a number of concerns and variables exist among consumers regarding food refrigeration. Further study into reported practices of a large group (n=550) of persons is in progress at this time. Specific investigation into temperatures and methods for determining adequacy of refrigeration are being emphasized.

*Supported by an FDA Cooperative Agreement.

INVESTIGATING LEARNING STYLES RELATIVE TO WEB-BASED INSTRUCTION

Dee Knight, Christy Crutsinger and Tammy Kinley

University of North Texas

Purpose. Higher education is in a period of transition due, in part, to a changing student population and use of technology in instructional delivery methods. Consequently, universities are offering web-based instruction to enrich resident courses and to deliver courses totally online (Wernet, Olliges, & Delicath, 2000). Therefore, it is important to examine students’ learning styles in terms of web-based instruction if this delivery method is to be implemented successfully. The purpose of this study was to determine if students’ learning styles affected their experiences with web-based instruction.

Procedure. Students in undergraduate merchandising courses with web-based components voluntarily completed Solomon and Felder’s Learning Styles survey (http://www2.ncsu.edu/
unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/ILSdir/ilsweb.html) to determine their learning styles. At the end of the semester, students evaluated the web-based instruction on a 21-item scale developed by the researchers. Data were collected relative to students’ experiences, the effectiveness of the web-based components, effort required for assignments, comfort of participation in activities, preference for web-based instruction and recommendations for its future use. A 5-point Likert scale (1= “Strongly Disagree” to 5 = “Strongly Agree”) measured the items. Finally, an open-ended question asked for comments regarding web-based instruction. ANOVAs were used to determine the effects of learning style on usefulness of and preparation for web-based instruction. Chi-square analyses were used to determine if effort in completing web-based assignments and preferences for web-based instruction differed according to learning styles.

Findings. The majority of the 125 participants were juniors (22.9%) or seniors (44.1%). The four learning styles identified were active/reflective, sensing/intuitive, visual/verbal, and sequential/global with approximately half of the students indicating a balance in each category. Students who identified strongly with one style in each category were visual (50.0%), sensing (41.4%), sequential (40.4%), active (37.9%), verbal (9.5%) and global (6.1%) learners. Analysis revealed no significant differences in usefulness of and preparation for web-based instruction or for instructional delivery preferences in terms of learning styles. However, effort to complete web-based assignments differed significantly χ²(4, N=110) = 11.75, p = .05. Students identifying with either extreme in the sensing/intuitive category required greater effort to complete web-based components, and students with balanced sensing/intuitive learning styles required the same effort for web-based and in-class instruction.

Implications. Teachers attempting to meet students’ changing needs should consider web-based instruction that accommodates a variety of learning styles. Creative web-based instruction also can address the specific needs of sensing and intuitive learners for whom web-based instruction may require greater effort.

INVESTIGATING LEARNING STYLES RELATIVE TO WEB-BASED INSTRUCTION

Mitzi R. Perritt, Sandra L. McCune, Sharon McClure and Todd Lucas

Stephen F. Austin State University

This study investigated chair preferences of older adults through the use of images. As more retirement facilities emerge, it is advantageous to know the stylistic preferences of this clientele. Thus, the transition from private dwelling to institution may be eased as the new surroundings reflect appealing furnishings and contribute to a sense of psychological wellbeing.

A purposive sample (Gay & Airasian, 2000) of 100 Alzheimer's and 100 non-Alzheimer’s respondents was secured from a 33,750 square mile area. The two samples were similar in demographics. Data collection materials included a light meter, visual acuity card, and two binders of black/white chair images which controlled for the intervening variable of color. Each picture measured 4"x 6" to provide a large image for the aging eye. A minimum lighting level of 50 footcandles (IESNA, 1998) was observed. A visual acuity card (Western Ophthalmics, 1999) allowed quick assessment of respondent vision; the minimal score used in the study was 20/50.

Pictures depicted stylistic groupings: chairs with little to no upholstery, chairs with both seat and back upholstery, formal chairs, barrel-backs, recliners, and rockers. A wooden stand displayed the images at a glare-free angle. Respondents selected the most preferred chair from each grouping as well as an overall preference.

Data for chair preferences yielded similar results in both groups. From the “little to no upholstery” category, respondents chose a Chippendale chair. From the “seat and back upholstered cushions," a basic institutional chair was preferred. From the “formal” chairs, both groups indicated the upholstered Queen Anne wingback and the ornamented Martha Washington chair as their first or second choices. The fully upholstered version was the most preferred barrel-back style. Of the recliners, the skirted wingback received the highest preference followed closely by the bustle back. From the rockers, respondents selected the Boston and the Martha Washington rockers with equal frequency; the glider followed as a second choice.

Analysis reinforced prior research (Perritt, McCune, & Nuner, 1999) proposing that Alzheimer's respondents have preferences like their well counterparts. The incorporation of chair preferences may benefit both groups by reducing anxiety and promoting acceptance of a new space.

References.

Gay, L. & Airasian, P. (2000). Educational research: competencies for analysis and application. Upper Saddle River, NY: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. (1998). Recommended practice for lighting and the visual environment for senior living. New York, NY: Author.

Perritt, M., McCune, S. & Nuner, J. (1999). An investigation of the color, pattern, and texture preferences of Alzheimer's victims. Conference Proceedings of the Interior Design Educators Council, 14-15.

Western Ophthalmics. (1999). Instruments catalog 1999-2000. Lynnwood, WA: Author.

INVESTIGATING APPAREL MANUFACTURERS' KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE AND CARE CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL PRODUCTS

Sharon Welkey and Deborah D. Young

Texas Woman's University

Introduction and Purpose. Over the past 40 years, there has been an increase in the popularity of sewn products made from manufactured fibers and, except for cotton, a decrease in the production and use of natural fabrics in many sewn-product categories. For the producers of natural fibers, particularly wool, understanding the reasons why manufacturers do not use natural fibers is important. Therefore, learning more about the levels of knowledge of products made from 100% wool that exist among apparel manufacturers will allow producers to more thoroughly understand the reasons behind the use and nonuse of natural fibers. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine the levels of knowledge of performance and care characteristics of products made from wool fibers among apparel manufacturers.

Methodology. Subjects consisted of a representative random sample of 216 apparel manufacturers in Texas. A self-administered mail questionnaire solicited data regarding knowledge about apparel products made from wool; 60 were returned undeliverable; response rate was 16.0%. Knowledge was determined by responses to 12 statements regarding performance characteristics and 7 statements regarding care. Participants rated each statement on a modified Likert scale listing five responses ranging from strongly agree to do not know to strongly disagree to the extent the statement applied to their knowledge about products, in general, made from 100% wool. Frequencies were analyzed to determine the levels of knowledge for each of the statements.

Results. Overall, participants utilized fabrics containing a wide variety of natural and manufactured fibers, however, wool was used by only 12.0%, and participants had low levels of knowledge about products made from wool fabrics. When analyzing statements regarding performance characteristics, participants indicated a reasonable level of knowledge about only 4 statements, do hang well, are not itchy or irritating to the skin, do have wide range and depth to color, and provide warmth. For the remaining 8 statements, between 47.1% and 88.2% of the participants responded incorrectly or do not know. When analyzing statements regarding care, participants indicated a reasonable level of knowledge about only 1 statement, can be dry cleaned. For the remaining 6 statements, between 47.1% and 94.1% of the participants responded incorrectly or do not know.

Conclusions and Implications. Study results indicated that apparel manufacturers possessed overall low levels of knowledge about the performance and care characteristics of products made from 100% wool. Thus, the researchers believe that these results provide some insight regarding the low levels of usage of wool in the marketplace. What was most revealing about the low levels of knowledge was the very strong disagreement or do not know response to two statements about the characteristics of wool, are cool and can be worn year round. Responses seemed to indicate that participants are not aware of the differing weights and weaves of wool fabrics, fabrics that can be cool and can be worn year round. As a result, the researchers believe that heightened levels of publicity and education about wool need to occur to apparel manufacturers. Without sufficient education, the use of wool fibers most likely will continue to decrease.

A MULTISTATE SURVEY OF PRINCIPAL’S PERCEPTION OF TEACHERS DRESS ON TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS*

Janie O. Kenner, Rachel A. Underwood and Sandra McCune

Stephen F. Austin State University

Clothing is an important cue in the initial judgment of others (Kwon, 1994). Image and reputation are affected by dress or essentially one’s appearance. Selection of professional attire enhances occupational attributes of teachers. Even in today’s casual school environment, dress is important and can give a degree of authority.

Purpose. The purpose of the research was to investigate high school principals’ perception in regard to dress of teachers. Ten occupational attributes, responsibility, competency, knowledge ability, professionalism, honesty, reliability, intelligence, trustworthiness, willingness to work hard, and efficiency, identified by Kwon (1994) were used.

Procedure. The questionnaire included demographic variables of years as principal, gender, age, level of education, size of school and location. Three dress modes: traditional, business casual, and leisure, were shown in line illustrations. Principals ranked the occupational attributes for teachers per dress mode on a five-point Likert scale. A total of 720 surveys were mailed to principals in Texas, North Carolina, Nebraska, Pennsylvania, and Utah. Two hundred twenty-four surveys were returned.

Findings. Respondents were male (79.78%) and Caucasian (94.50%). School boards and principals establish dress policy with principals (82.35%) being responsible for enforcement. Principals were somewhat (46.88%) satisfied with faculty dress on campus which was primarily business casual. In contrast, traditional attire was worn by principals (78.03%). Choices of income, comfort, school setting and lack of knowledge of appropriate dress were listed as factors in influencing teacher dress. Comfort was the number one factor in apparel selection.

The means for the top three attributes for traditional dress - female: professionalism (4.70), responsibility (4.38), and competence (4.28); for business casual: responsibility (3.97), professionalism (3.94), and competence(3.87); for leisure dress: honesty (2.52), intelligence (2.51), and knowledge ability (2.50). The means for the top three attributes for males were: traditional dress: professionalism (4.67), responsibility (4.45), competence (4.31); business casual: responsibility (4.03), professionalism (3.99); and competence (3.99); leisure dress: honesty (2.53), knowledge ability (2.51), and intelligence (2.51). If traditional business attire is worn, the teacher is seen as being overwhelmingly professional, responsible, and competent. When dressed in leisure attire a significant drop in means occurred when compared to professional dress. There were no common attributes in the top three means for both males and females across all three modes of dress. Traditional business attire indicates a more professional image for both males and females.

Implications. Teacher training curriculum should include information on how to dress professional for the classroom as well as for other school occasions. In this era of teacher accountability, the teacher’s image that is projected to not only the principal but to students, parents, school board members and the general public affects how professional the teacher is viewed.

References.

Kwon, Yoon-Hee (1994). The influence of appropriateness of dress and gender on the self-perception of occupational attributes. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 12 (3), 33-39.

*This research was conducted under a Stephen F. Austin State University faculty research grant.

math anxiety, Attitude toward CALCULATORs, AND CAlculator use

Cathryn M. Studak and Jane E. Workman

Southern Illinois University

Purpose. The purposes of this study were to determine: (a) the correlation between attitude toward and use of calculators and the affective dimension of math anxiety; and (b) effect of calculator use on calculator anxiety, math anxiety, and percentages proficiency. “Affective anxiety refers to the emotional component of anxiety—feelings of nervousness, tension, dread, fear, and unpleasant physiological reactions to testing situations“ (Ho, Senturk, & Lam, 1992). Studies have found that calculator use enhances math skill performance and math self- confidence. Findings indicated that, with calculator use, students with low or average math skills increased their performance and their attitudes toward math, i.e., anxiety decreased, self-confidence increased (Merriweather & Tharp, 1999). The language of sales has mathematical shorthand dependent on basic descriptive statistics, described through percentages, e.g., percent of sales increase/decrease; “make plan—over or under;” and percent sold or “sell-through.”

Procedure. A pilot study was conducted with university students enrolled in an entry-level fashion mathematics course (n = 18). In a pre-posttest format, students completed demographic information, Attitude and Use of Calculators (Tharp, 1992), Math Anxiety Questionnaire (Wigfield & Meece, 1988), and a percentages proficiency test developed by the researchers. Course instruction included how to use the percent function key on a calculator as a tool in basic business applications, e.g., percentages as a descriptor of sales performance.

Findings. Post-test results indicated scores on Math Anxiety were correlated with scores on Attitude and Use of Calculators, r = .568, p < .002. A paired samples t-test revealed use of a calculator resulted in improvement in attitude toward calculators, t (17) = 2.26, p < 04; affective math anxiety, t (17) = 1.99, p < .06; and percentages test performance, t (17) = 3.32, p < .004.

Implications. Consistent with previous research, this study found that use of a calculator improved students’ attitudes toward both math and calculators (i.e., anxiety decreased) and improved performance on a percentages proficiency test. Because a calculator is an essential tool in the retailing environment, it is important to explore ways to increase students’ comfort level when using a calculator. If students are not comfortable using a calculator, they will likely avoid using it and rely on slower and less accurate paper and pencil methods.

References.

Ho, H., Senturk, D., & Lam, A. (May 2000).The affective and cognitive dimensions of math anxiety: A cross-national study. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 31(3), 362-379.

Merriweather, M., & Tharp, M. (1999). The effect of instruction with graphing calculators on how general mathematics students naturalistically solve algebraic problems. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 18(1), 7-22.

Tharp, M. (1992). A problem solving inquiry oriented approach to learning mathematics—student/teacher interaction. A case study. Paper presented at AERA Annual Meeting. San Francisco, CA (ERIC document production service #355090).

Wigfield, A., & Meece, J. (1988). Math anxiety in elementary and secondary school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 210-216.

SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE PREFERRED WHEN HIRING FOR ENTRY-LEVEL POSITIONS IN APPAREL DESIGN AND PRODUCTION

Deborah D. Young and Nicole Bettinger

Texas Woman's University

Purpose. As the 21st century begins, having the skills needed for that first entry-level job will be critical as labor experts predict that there will be more university graduates looking for jobs than will be openings for positions requiring a bachelor’s degree. Approximately one in five college-educated entrants to the job market may not be able to secure college-level positions. Therefore, in order for universities to better prepare students for entry-level jobs, more research is required to discover what skills and knowledge employers are seeking when hiring graduates for entry-level positions. Thus, the purpose of this qualitative, exploratory study was to determine the job skills, industry knowledge, and interpersonal skills preferred by employers for candidates seeking entry-level positions in apparel design/production.

Procedure. Interviews were conducted with individuals responsible for hiring entry-level employees at six apparel design/production companies ranging in size from 20 to 4,000 employees. Available entry-level positions included design assistant, trim buyer, textile artist, and assistant production manager. According to qualitative research procedures, companies were selected purposefully because of career opportunities within the companies and their locations in a metroplex near the researcher. The interview guide contained an inquiry section used to obtain general information, and a skills/knowledge identification section used to gather information regarding the top five job skills, top five areas of industry knowledge, and top five interpersonal skills preferred by the employers for entry-level employees. Through content analysis, the researcher categorized, reduced, interpreted, and analyzed the data for results.

Findings. When asked about the top five job skills preferred, participants most often indicated computer, communication, and organizational skills, and the ability to prioritize and be accurate. For the top five areas of industry knowledge preferred, participants most often indicated pattern making, textile/fabrics, sketching, designing, and construction knowledge. Participants most often indicated teamwork, multi-tasking, and organizing ability, as well as enthusiasm, flexibility, reliability, and punctuality as the top five interpersonal skills preferred.

Conclusions and Implications. Overall, computer, teamwork, communication, multi-tasking, and organizational skills were most preferred by participants when hiring for entry-level positions, while the most favored areas of knowledge included pattern making, textiles/fabrics, sketching, and designing. The individual with a four-year college degree having good communication, computer, and organizational skills, and the ability to make patterns, sketch, design, sew, and work in a team, combined with a strong knowledge of textiles and fabrics should be successful at being hired for an entry-level position in the fashion industry. Instructors should utilize these results to develop programs that will prepare apparel design and/or production students for successful entry into the job market. Results indicate the need to develop interpersonal skills among students, thus, instructors should provide the opportunities to further develop interpersonal skills both inside and outside of the classroom. Preparation for employment should be the main objective contained within textile and apparel curricula.

INVESTIGATING U.S. CONSUMERS’ PERFORMANCE RISK FOR PURCHASING PRODUCTS FROM INTERNET SHOPPING SITES

Patti K. Miley, Henderson State University

Deborah D. Young, Texas Woman’s University

Purpose. Over the past five years, the tremendous growth of the Internet has resulted in millions of consumers and firms participating with each other in the online marketplace, an activity often referred to as e-commerce. Estimates indicate that, by 2005, e-commerce will represent 10% to 12% of U.S. retail sales in apparel and accessories, and 20% to 25% of sales in books, music, software, videos, and consumer electronics. However, results of the Ernst & Young 2000 study of online shopping (2001) indicated that, of those U.S. consumers with Internet access, only 74% bought any product online. Thus, there is a significant number of consumers with online access that do not buy products online, in part, because of the types of risks that are perceived when purchasing online. One of these types of risk is performance risk, or the perception that a purchased product or service will not perform as expected. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate and compare the perceived performance risk among U.S. adult consumers with Internet access that do and do not purchase from Internet shopping sites.

Procedure. This research was part of a larger exploratory study of U.S. consumers with Internet access, age 18 and older. Subjects consisted of a representative random sample of 9,495 consumers; response rate for the study was 30.05%. A Web-based questionnaire solicited data regarding demographics, Internet shopping behavior, and perceived risk of purchasing via Internet shopping sites. Individuals purchasing more than once a month from Internet shopping sites were described as frequent purchasers, and those purchasing less than once a month were classified as infrequent purchasers. Perceived performance risk was determined by responses to five statements; participants rated each statement to the extent the statement applied to their beliefs about Internet purchasing on a modified Likert scale listing five responses ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The numerical total of the responses was used as the measure of perceived time risk. Chi-square contingency analysis was used to determine any significant relationship between purchasing and perceived performance risk.

Findings. Based on responses regarding Internet shopping site usage, 21.9% of the participants were frequent purchasers, 62.1% were infrequent purchasers, and 15.9% were non-purchasers. Overall, based on responses regarding performance, 39.6% of the participants were described as having low perceived performance risk, with 60.4% having high perceived performance risk. Among the non-purchasers, 88.9% reported high levels of perceived performance risk, compared to 60.7% of the infrequent purchasers and 40.4% of the frequent purchasers. The obtained chi-square demonstrated significance χ² (2, N=2566) = 227.402, p < .001. A greater percentage of the non-purchasers indicated high levels of perceived performance risk when considering purchasing from Internet shopping sites.

Conclusions and Implications. When comparing scores between the three purchaser groups, non-purchasers had significantly higher levels of perceived performance risk. Based on the concepts of the performance risk scale, non-purchasers believed that products purchased from Internet sites were not likely to perform as expected, the potential for delays were related to dependability and reliability of products, and the lack of human interaction when purchasing was related to unsatisfactory service and questionable merchandise. In addition, non-purchasers wanted to physically see products before purchasing in order to feel more confident about performance. Findings support past study results about in-home shopping and high performance risk (Dillard, 1992). Thus, Internet retailers must be sure to provide high levels of information about products, ordering, shipping, and service attract consumers that are guarded about shopping at home despite recognized advantages.

Reference.

Dillard, S. J. (1992). P.C. users' intentions to adopt online shopping (Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University, 1992). Dissertation Abstracts Online.

SHOPPING ON VACATION: TOURIST PERSPECTIVES

Tammy Kinley, Judith Forney and Youn-Kyung Kim

University of North Texas

Purpose. Shopping is reported to be the number one activity for both domestic and international tourists (Goeldner, Ritchie, & McIntosh, 2000) and has taken on new importance as a family vacation activity. This is indicated in retail expansion in destinations that attract families such as theme parks, national parks and museums. Moreover, urban vacations provide families with opportunities to vacation shop in malls. The purpose of this exploratory study was to identify specific mall attributes that are important to tourists when deciding where to shop while on vacation.

Procedure. As a preliminary step to a larger consumer study, nine tourist shoppers in a southwest shopping mall agreed to participate for compensation in a focus group. A tourist shopper was defined as a person who traveled fifty or more miles to the shopping center and who may have come specifically to shop, or may be shopping as part of a greater agenda.

Findings. When the tourist shoppers were asked what specific mall attributes they desired when shopping, those most frequently mentioned included: variety of products offered, price, reputation, proximity to airport and hotels, restaurant choices, unique stores, and outlet-type stores. These shoppers were very interested in feeling that they were in a safe, clean environment, and they did not want to feel too crowded. Mall anchor stores were important in the initial selection of where to shop, but the smaller unique independent shops were more exciting to this group.

When asked about their expectations for the shopping experience that day, the most popular response was to buy several items, specifically things they cannot get at home. This group reported that as a tourist, they are serious shoppers – they came to spend money. They desired to buy something special to remind them of the area and expected to find interesting impulse purchases. They expected salespeople to be friendly, helpful, knowledgeable, and nice, but not pushy. Also they desired consistency in stores with which they are already familiar. They were not interested in entertainment options.

Implications. Learning what the tourist shopper desires will be the first step to anticipate and facilitate the needs of this market. Shopping centers and malls need to offer unique specialty store experiences, while ensuring anchor stores are solid destination choices. Tourists desire a great deal of variety and an opportunity to spend their vacation money in a safe and clean environment.

Family and consumer scientists can help families create vacation shopping budgets that support shopping as an exciting family vacation activity without overextending finances and they can work with malls to create shopping environments that are family friendly, interesting, and address safety issues, particularly with children.

Reference.

Goeldner, C. R., Ritchie, J. R. B., McIntosh, R. W. (2000). Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies, 8^th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

REQUISITE COMPETENCIES AND SKILLS FOR ELECTRONIC MERCHANDISERS

Judith C. Forney, Christy A. Crutsinger and Lynn Brandon

University of North Texas

Purpose. The emergence of e-tailing as a third dominant channel (i.e, brick and mortar retailers, catalog retailers, on-line retailers) for delivering product to consumers is exploding in the United States. Thus, there is a growing industry demand for employees whose competencies meet the unique requirements of merchandising in an electronic format. The purpose of this exploratory study was to develop a framework that identified the requisite competencies and skill for electronic merchandisers (e-merchandisers).

Procedure. Qualitative data were gathered through six interviews with executives (i.e., Executive Vice Presidents, Presidents, and Divisional Managers) of national and international retail and wholesale apparel and home furnishings companies that had developed a strong presence as on-line retailers. Subjects responded to a series of pre-designed questions addressing the competencies and skill sets required for successful on-line merchandisers. A content analysis of responses provided rich textual descriptions that were used to identify emerging themes.

Findings. Six concepts were identified as the framework for developing competencies and skill sets for on-line merchandisers. The concepts included: on-line merchandising processes, consumer segmentation, design architecture, analytic processing, computer knowledge, and communication skills. Findings from this study revealed that the “electronic merchandiser” needs a blended merchandising and data-based background to be successful. The e-merchandiser must make decisions using historical data to determine which styles/products are the best performers. This historical data is continuously derived from the click-through behavior of customers. Moreover, the e-merchandiser needs to understand the entire merchandising process such as line planning, line development and line presentation even though they may not be directly involved in operational systems. Specifically, the e-merchandiser must continuously re-merchandise the web site with the support of technical personnel. The e-merchandiser provides the information on products to sell on a site while the technology specialist provides the expertise in developing the web site. The e-merchandiser must be continuously updating information and product offerings on the web site. In addition, personal characteristics such as creativity and motivation were identified as interdependent and underlying traits that are essential for successful on-line merchandisers.

Implications. The e-merchandiser operates in an environment that is distinctly different from merchandising in brick and mortar stores and in catalog formats. The e-merchandiser must understand the basic elements of the merchandising process in addition to new competencies that are critical to successful on-line retailing. Thus, preparing effective e-merchandisers requires a curriculum that blends a new understanding of merchandise strategies with an infusion of data analysis, consumer segmentation, design architecture, computer knowledge, and communication skills.

Understanding the Internal Network of the Apparel Retail Product Development Process

Christy A. Crutsinger, Daton Lee, Judith C. Forney and Madhav Pappu

University of North Texas

Purpose. Retailers are proactively creating their own private brand apparel to seek methods of differentiation and to create competitive advantages over rival companies. Oftentimes, retailers do not have the expertise in design, development, production, and sourcing to successfully bring products from conception to the marketplace. The purpose of this study was to investigate the apparel retail product development process and to identify the internal network that successfully develops private label merchandise.

Procedure. A single site case study of a national retailer was conducted to complete the study using the Apparel Retail Product Development model as the research framework (Wickett, Gaskill, & Damhorst, 1999). The retailer was selected because of their extensive and successful involvement in developing private label merchandise across multiple product categories. A data triangulation process was completed by obtaining information from multiple sources including in-depth interviews, on-site observations, and historical records. Fourteen semi-structured, open-ended interviews were conducted with personnel in upper and middle management. The interviewees represented different positions and functions in the apparel retail product development process. A clustered matrix was developed from the coded data to identify emerging themes.

Findings. The retailer performed all four phases of development activities including research, line conceptualization, line visualization and evaluation, and technical development as proposed by Wickett et al (1999). However, the four phases were difficult to differentiate as each phase was interrelated. The retailer’s apparel product development network involved two essential groups: a core merchandise development team and a support group. The core merchandise development team included members from three different functions: buying, product development, and sourcing. The core merchandise development team initiated the product development process for each season. Different core merchandise development teams concentrated on the development of a particular private brand or a specific merchandise category. The support team included the functions of trend research and analysis, computer-aided design, information systems, technical design, and quality testing. Meanwhile, the support group provided its services across different private brands and merchandise categories.

Implications. Findings from this study resulted in a modified conceptual framework that demonstrates how retailers can develop an integrated network that can successfully bring products from conception to consumer. This study provides useful information for retailers initiating private label development programs and developing organizational structures to support such ventures.

Reference.

Wickett, J. L., Gaskill, L. R., & Damhorst, M. L. (1999). Apparel retail product development: Model testing and expansion. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 17(1), 21-35.

A COMPARISON OF SINGLE AND MARRIED WOMEN’S CLOTHING SELECTION CRITERIA AND THEIR CLOTHING STYLE AND BODY EMPHASIS PREFERENCES

Judith Forney and Reneé S. Jackson

University of North Texas

Purpose. This descriptive study compared single and married female consumers to determine if marital status influenced the importance given to clothing selection criteria, clothing style preferences, and preferences when using clothing to emphasize body areas.

Procedure. Using a purchased mailing list, surveys were sent to 1000 randomly selected women from a southwest state; 283 usable surveys were obtained. The sample included single (n = 234) and married (n = 49) women. Seven clothing selection criteria (color, style, fashion, garment detail, fit, beauty, and fabric) were measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not important to 5 = very important). Bipolar semantic differential scales measured seven clothing style preferences: traditional/nontraditional, fashionable/non-fashionable, masculine/feminine, sexy/unsexy, trendy/classic, modest/unmodest, conforming/nonconforming. Bipolar semantic differential scales measured women’s preferences for 14 areas of body emphasis using clothing: low/high/neck in front/back, partially revealed/covered/revealed shoulders, covered/revealed upper arm, covered/revealed arm, emphasized/nonemphasized bust-chest, emphasized/ nonemphasized waist, covered/revealed midriff, emphasized/nonemphasized hip, partially revealed/covered/revealed upper leg, covered/revealed lower leg, and covered/revealed feet. One-way ANOVAs tested differences on the importance of clothing selection criteria and preferences for clothing styles and using clothing to emphasize areas of the body by marital status (single/married). A .05 level was used for acceptance.

Findings. Ranked mean scores revealed similar rankings for clothing selection criteria by married and single respondents. Five criteria rated as very important: fit (M = 4.76, 4.79), color (M = 4.57, 4.47), style (M = 4.20, 4.11), fabric (M = 4.18, 4.20), and beauty (M = 4.14, 4.16); fashion (M = 3.20, 3.15) rated lowest. Ranked mean scores comparing clothing style preferences showed married women preferred masculine (M = 4.08), trendy (M = 3.81), and sexy and conforming (M = 2.73) styles. Single participants preferred masculine (M = 4.19), trendy (M = 3.65), and conforming (M = 2.81) styles. Ranked mean scores comparing the use of clothing to emphasize body areas resulted in similar preferences for 13 areas of emphasis by both groups. ANOVAs revealed no significant group differences for the seven clothing selection criteria and for clothing style preferences. The ANOVA for body area emphasis (F = 5.697, df = 1,227, p < .05) indicated single women preferred a low neckline in front (M = 3.03) while married women preferred a high neckline in front (M = 3.42).

Implications. Clothing selection criteria importance, style preferences and body emphasis areas do not seem to differ by marital status with the exception of neckline emphasis. Further study might investigate demographic characteristics (i.e., age, income, type of work) and clothing purchase decisions by marital status. Manufacturers and retailers may be able to refine product lines and increase their customer base by employing clothing characteristics used as clothing selection criteria. Family and consumer scientists could help consumers understand the benefits of focusing on their most preferred clothing selection criteria to build an effective wardrobe, which would also be important in financial planning for wardrobe purchases.

COMPARING RELATIONSHIPS AMONG COLLEGE FEMALES’ BODY IMAGE DISSATISFACTION AND APPAREL SELECTION

Julianne Trautmann and Sheri L. Lokken, Mississippi State University

Kristine L. Lokken, University of Alabama

Purpose. In order to meet society’s ideal appearance, individuals use appearance-management strategies such as exercise, dieting, surgery, and apparel selection (Rudd & Lennon, 2000). Our purpose was to investigate relationships among college females’ body dissatisfaction, body avoidance, and body focus, relative to appearance-management behaviors (i.e., clothing usage).

Procedure. Data was collected on 540 female university students from two different geographic locations in the U.S. The self-report instruments administered and analyzed included the: (a) Body Image Avoidance Questionnaire (BIA) (Rosen, et al., 1991); (b) Attention to Body Shape Scale (Beebe, 1995); (c) the Bulimia Test-Revised (Thelen, et al., 1991); (d) Eating Disorder Inventory (Garner, et al., 1983); and (e) Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (Heinberg, et al., 1995). An inter-item analysis of the BIA allowed us to analyze a clothing factor relative to appearance-management behaviors (e.g., “I wear baggy clothing,” “I wear darker color clothing,” “I wear ‘fat clothes’,” and “I do not wear ‘revealing clothes’”).

Findings. Pearson correlations revealed that college women with a higher body focus (r=.48, p<.01), a higher drive for thinness (r=.42, p<.01), and disordered eating patterns (r=.48, p<.01) were more likely to engage in clothing-related body avoidance behaviors. Women who were highly aware of a culture’s ideal body standards (r=.17, p<.01), and who internalized these standards (r=.19, p<.01), also engaged in clothing-related body avoidance behaviors.

Implications. College females who overemphasized their body shapes, and who were more dissatisfied with their body images relative to a culture’s ideal body, were more likely to use clothing to hide or disguise their bodies. We concur with Rudd and Lennon (2001) that educators need to address aspects of body image in their curriculum in order to reduce the negative consequences associated with young women striving for the perfect, idealized body.

References.

Beebe, D.W. (1995). The attention to body shape scale: A new measure of body focus. Journal of Personality Assessment, 65 (3), 486-501.

Garner, D. M., Olmstead, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2(2), 15-34.

Heinberg, L. J., Thompson, J. K., & Stormer, S. (1995). Development and validation of the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 17(1), 81-89.

Rudd, N.A., & Lennon, S.J. (2000). Body image and appearance-management behaviors in college women. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 18(3), 152-162.

Rudd, N.A., & Lennon, S.J. (2001). Body image: Linking aesthetics and social psychology of appearance. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 19(3), 120-133.

Thelen, M., Farmer, J., Wonderlich, S., & Smith, M. (1991). A revision of the Bulimia Test: The BULIT-R. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3, 119-124.

CONTENT ANALYSIS OF JOB ADVERTISEMENTS FOR CORPORATE RETAIL BUYERS

Cathryn M. Studak, Carrie Corso and Erin Polczynski

Southern Illinois University

Purpose. The purpose of this study was to conduct a content analysis of advertisements placed in select trade publications to identify what kind of computer skills were necessary for job candidacy of retail buying positions. The goal of this project was to identify key professional skills of fashion retail buyers for corporations, not for sole proprietorships. The requirement for spreadsheet skills was the focus of content analysis. The skill development for retail buyers with minimal annual volumes of $10 million differ from sole proprietorships because of multiple locations, merchandise distribution allotment decisions, vendor sourcing, and use of quick-response inventory management systems. Sole proprietorships annual volume is typically less than one million dollars (Fiorito & Fairhurst, 1989).

Procedure. The Spring Season (February—July) of the fiscal year 2001 was used for the timeline to review advertisements placed in fashion trade publications. Content analysis was focused primarily on descriptions and/or requirements for computer software skills. The requirements were then ranked ordered by frequency of description/requirement. Job requirements that were not computer related were also rank ordered by frequency, but were separated from the computer software skills’ rankings. Afterwards, the top listings were merged for final analyses.

Findings.. Computer skills required for viable job candidates included advanced spreadsheet skills for sales analysis, inventory management systems analysis, and/or experience with CAD systems for participation on product development teams. A surprise finding of this study was manufacturers who advertised merchandising positions consistently required candidates to have corporate retail buying experience of at least 2 years. Therefore, retailing and manufacturing merchandising positions are becoming more integrated in responsibilities.

Implications. Traditionally, textbook descriptions of merchandising/buying positions in retailing were emphasized as having completely different skill sets from similar positions found in manufacturing. Computer software systems for inventory and sales management and analyses now integrate retailers and manufacturers. These software systems’ foundations are based on spreadsheet formatting techniques. It is critical for fashion merchandising educators responsible for teaching business math applications to also include spreadsheet skills development.

References.

Fiorito, S.S. & Fairhurst, A.E. (1989). Buying for the small apparel retail store: Job content across four merchandise categories. Clothing & Textiles Research Journal, 8(1), 10-21.

Fiorito, S.S., & Fairhurst, A.E. (1993). Comparison of buyers’ job content in large and small retail firms. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 11(3), 8-15.

COMPARING PERCEPTIONS OF APPAREL RETAIL SERVICES: A CROSS-CULTURAL VIEW

Beth Wuest, Southwest Texas State University

Seung-Hee Lee, University of Ulsan

Background. Service quality in the apparel retail environment is of interest to consumers, retailers, researchers and instructors alike. Teachers in fashion-related programs typically attempt to instill the importance of customer service in students who are studying to become professional in the field. However, the acceptance and application of such concepts are often related to students’ personal perceptions of customer service issues. Further, teachers must prepare future professionals for careers in a global marketplace. As a result, they must help students gain a broader understanding of customer service perceptions. Having a better understanding of the similarities and differences with respect to perceptions of customer services among distinct cultures should enable future apparel professionals to provide appropriate services for diverse consumer needs.

Purpose. The purpose of this study was to cross-culturally compare and contrast students’ perceptions of customer services. A secondary purpose was to examine the similarities an differences in perceptions using a scale which would allow for further comparisons with other groups.

Procedure. A self-administered questionnaire was used to gather data for descriptive and comparative statistical analysis for this survey study. The questionnaire was designed to assess the basic demographic background characteristics of respondents and their perceptions of customer services. Perceptions of customer services were measured with a 23-item version of Lumpkin, Greenberg and Goldstucker’s (1985) Likert scale. The questionnaire was completed by a purposive sample of 68 fashion merchandising student sin the State of Texas and 147 in Seoul, Korea. The scale was determined to be reliable with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.89.

Results and Conclusions. Both groups surveyed reported moderate to high levels of importance for most all service items in the scale. Means for the 23 items ranged from 3.87 to 6.36 for the Korean students, d from 3.13 to 6.72 for the Texas students, out of a possible range of 1.0 to 7.0, with 7.0 indicating the greatest level of importance. Only one item was ranked lower than “moderately important” for each of the two groups. However, eight of the 23 items were rated significantly different by the two groups at the 0.o05 level of significance. Of the items with significantly different ratings, “ability to return unsatisfactory products”, “product quality” and “availability of advertised products” were considered more important to the fashion merchandising students in Texas. “Uncrowded store”, “package carry-out”, “variety of stores close together”, “delivery” and “small store” were considered more important to the Korean fashion merchandising students.

Implications. Future apparel professionals should be encouraged to understand the importance that consumers place on customer services whether in the United States or in other countries. They must realizes that, when providing services to consumers in different cultural markets, fellow employees and other service providers may need to reexamine the importance given to certain services. The future fashion professional’s ability to respond to cultural difference will enable them to better work with fellow employees and serve the needs of diverse consumers.

Reference.

Lumpkin. J.R., Greenberg, B.A., & Goldstucker, J.L. (1985). Marketing needs of the elderly: Determinant attributes and store choice. Journal of Retailing, 61(2), 75-105.

DISTANCE EDUCATION: A MODEL FOR EFFECTIVE DESIGN

Nancy E. Thompson

Utah State University

The delivery of education is changing. In 1997-1998, 54,470 different courses were available through distance education (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1999). Nationally, courses offered via distance education compare favorably with courses offered through more traditional means of delivery. Since 1992, when systematic study of distance education started, research shows no statistically significant difference between the effectiveness of classroom and distance instruction (Saba, 2000). While distance education may be effective, traditional program/ course design needs to be adjusted to meet the unique needs of distance education. The purpose of this study was the development of a model for an effective distance education program.

All students (N = 70) currently or previously enrolled in Family and Consumer Sciences Education distance education masters’ courses at a large Western university were sent a survey developed to measure satisfaction with the graduate program and perception of that program’s impact of professional performance. The students were asked to provide the names and addresses of their immediate supervisor and a professional colleague with whom they most closely worked. Supervisors and colleagues identified by the subjects were asked to provide data related to observed changes in the subjects’ job performances.

Survey data were analyzed and descriptive statistics summarized. Comparisons were made among the data colleted from the students, their immediate supervisors, and their colleagues. All responses to open-ended questions were compiled, analyzed for content, and reported. Multiple regression analysis was used to assist in the development of the model for effective distance education.

Approximately 50% of the student surveys were returned. There were significant positive correlations (p<.01) between perceived quality of the distance education program and materials selected by the instructor, interaction with the instructor, teaching methods used by the instructor, and accessibility of the instructor. There were also significant positive correlations (p<.01) between the perceived quality of the program and the development of the following skills: writing, oral presentation, critical thinking, networking, research, teaching, and curriculum development. The return rate for surveys sent to supervisors and colleagues was low (less than 30%) making statistical conclusions difficult. However, trends were noted which showed positive relationships between the students’ survey results and those of the colleagues and supervisors. The resulting model of effective distance education focuses on the critical role of the instructor in the presentation of the course material, development of a positive, supportive relationship between the instructor and the students, and professional skills which should be addressed and developed through any distance education program.

References.

National Center for Educational Statistics. (1999). Distance education at postsecondary education institutions. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.

Saba, F. (200). Why there is no “significant difference” between face-to-face and distance education. Distance education report 4 (13), 1-4.

MOTIVATION FOR FCS TEACHING THROUGH CAREER REDIRECTION: AN ALTERNATIVE ROUTE TO TEACHER CERTIFICATION

Margaret Torrie, Cheryl O. Hausafus, Donna L. Cowan and Madhumita Banerjee

Iowa State University

Purpose. The study looked at motivation of a group of students who were AAFCS Millennium grant recipients. The Millennium grant was received from AAFCS to address the severe shortage of FCS professionals for teaching FCS at the middle and high school levels through career redirection. The grant provided support for ten graduate students. The study was designed to investigate why the participants chose to join the Millennium project and pursue a M.Ed. degree in Family and Consumer Sciences Education with a secondary level FCS teaching endorsement through career redirection.

Procedure. Nine Millennium grant recipients made satisfactory progress towards their graduate degree and license requirements by utilizing their tuition scholarship and professional development incentives for six semesters. Data for analysis was collected from eight of the Millennium grant completers consisting of seven females and one male. A depth interview was conducted via telephone to learn about the factors that motivated these students to take up teaching as a profession and redirect their careers. The approximately thirty-minute telephone interview included open-ended questions regarding their choice of career redirection and motivation for teaching, philosophy of FCS and teaching, scope of professional development in the program, and professional goals for the future. The telephone interviews were audio taped and the tapes were transcribed for analysis.

Findings. Passion for teaching, importance of teaching FCS concepts to youths, shaping societal change, and financial assistance were clear reasons cited for joining the Millennium program. Inspiration from family and friends, love for teaching, need for career change, and job flexibility were some of the reasons cited for considering teaching as a profession. Basic food preparation, parenting skills, life skills, money management, family relationships, and consumer education were identified as the major concepts that students need to know. Nearly all of the interviewees felt that their philosophy of FCS became stronger and they became more supportive of the need for FCS education at the secondary level. Most of the interviewees felt that AAFCS professional memberships and participation in conferences and workshops both at the state and national levels greatly added to their professional development. Exposure to latest developments helped them stay current in knowledge and information on what others have been doing and provided them with the opportunity to hear from people with different perspectives. Ideas about professional advancement and benefits cited by the participants were diverse. Some felt that being able to teach would add immense satisfaction while others thought they have grown intellectually and felt like a professional in the field. To some, a raise in pay scale was important, while others thought they earned a different level of respect after accomplishing their goals.

Implications. This study underscores the importance of increased initiatives needed to be taken by institutions and organizations to support individuals willing to redirect their careers thereby addressing the issue of severe shortage of professionals in the areas of teaching FCS at the secondary level. Financial assistance, scope for professional development, and need for career changes were some of the reasons cited by interviewees for pursuing the M.Ed. graduate degree. More funds need to be set aside and more scholarships need to be created to encourage individuals interested in the teaching profession or those seeking a career change to pursue a profession in teaching Family and Consumer Sciences at the secondary level. It is by such initiatives that the problem of teacher shortage in FCS can be addressed.

FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES EDUCATION NATIONAL CURRICULUM STANDARDS: IMPLEMENTATION PLANS FOR REFORM

Sue Reichelt, Texas Tech University

Judy Brun, Iowa State University

Purpose. The purpose of this study was to describe the status of the implementation of the national standards for family and consumer sciences secondary curricula as reported by key state department of education administrators of family and consumer sciences three years after the publication of the standards. Specifically, the study sought to identify the level and degree of use of the standards, concerns about the standards, and configurations for implementation of the standards.

Procedure. The Concerns Based Adoption Model (Hall & Hord, 1984) provided a framework for developing an interview schedule to identify the level and degree of use, concerns, and models of implementation related to the family and consumer sciences national standards. Telephone interviews, conducted from July-September of 2000, were used to collect data from family and consumer sciences administrators in state departments of education. Responses to open-ended interview questions were tape recorded and later transcribed. These transcribed data were analyzed to determine patterns, emerging themes, commonalities and differences expressed by the administrators. Responses to close-ended interview questions were reviewed, coded, and analyzed using SPSS 10.0 software. Forty-four state administrators participated in this study.

Findings. The results of this study found a majority of state administrators were utilizing the family and consumer sciences national standards in their states. Forty-one respondents (93%) indicated that the standards were being implemented to some degree in their state. The top two reasons identified for implementing the family and consumer sciences national standards were to improve existing curriculum (78%) and as an aid in developing new curriculum (63%). Only three respondents indicated the national standards were not being used in their states. The reasons identified for not implementing standards included time, lack of information, prior development of state standards, and being a local autonomy state. Four areas of concern were identified by respondents. They included concern about the standards model, the assessment of standards, timelines for revision, and dissemination of information related to standards. A variety of implementation strategies were also identified, many centering around the use of curriculum teams as a model to guide state standards for education in family and consumer sciences.

Implications. Findings from this study validate the usefulness of the family and consumer sciences national standards document for family and consumer sciences administrators in state departments of education. The specific suggestions these administrators provided could serve as a basis for making revisions to the standards document. Additionally, development of a central database and website with in-depth information about family and consumer sciences standards efforts would be useful.

References:

Hall. G, & Hord, S. (1984). Change in schools: Facilitating the process. New York: State University of New York Press. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. (ED332261).

EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING RESEARCH METHODS TO UNDERGRADUATE FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES STUDENTS

Sheri L. Lokken, CFCS

Mississippi State University

Purpose. Understanding the research process is a vital part of the undergraduate experience. By offering students first-hand experience with research they are more apt to see the value of the scientific process and become inquisitive about family and consumer sciences research issues. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching research methods at the undergraduate level in a family and consumer sciences course.

Procedure. Data for this study were collected from 24 undergraduate students in a senior-level family resource management course. The majority of the students were Human Development and Family Studies majors, Caucasian, and female. A pre-test post-test design was employed to investigate the changes in students’ feelings of competence toward research. The pre-test and post-test were administered respectively on the first and last day of the course. The semester-long course served as the treatment for the students. Student groups were assigned a resource management topic based around the class lectures and a resource management textbook. Students were informed their data must be gathered from the parents of children attending the Child Development and Family Studies Center (CDFSC). The CDFSC is operated by the School of Human Sciences and serves as a teaching laboratory for students. A speaker from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) educated the class on using human subjects in research. Several course lectures focused on the research process. Reviews of literature from each group were due early in the semester. Research questions and hypotheses were due next, followed by specific items for the questionnaire. All questions were then compiled into one instrument. Next, the IRB application and completed questionnaire were reviewed by the entire class before being submitted. Upon approval from IRB, the questionnaires were distributed to the parents at the CDFSC. Methodology sections were due next. A graduate assistant input the data. The class met in the computer lab for 2 class periods and students learned to run simple analyses using SPSS. The instructor met individually with each group to discuss findings before the results and conclusions sections was due. Each group gave a research presentation and submitted a poster abstract. As a result of this course, 7 abstracts were published in the MS-AFCS 2001 Conference Proceedings and 7 posters were presented at the conference.

Findings. Students’ scores on individual test items increased significantly in every category. They were more likely to indicate they had received appropriate training to: write a survey instrument (t = -5.53, p < .001), conduct a survey (t = -5.04, p < .001), analyze survey data (t = -2.47, p < .05), make recommendations based on analyses (t = -4.84, p < .001). Scores also increased on students’ self-rated knowledge of: family resource management (t = -4.77, p < .001), conducting research (t = -5.07, p < .001), designing a research survey (t = -6.24, p < .001), conducting a research interview (t = -4.32, p < .001), analyzing survey data (t = -3.03, p < .01), and summarizing results and drawing conclusions (t = -6.09, p < .001).

Implications. A solid understanding of the research process is important for all students, even if they do not plan to attend graduate school. Findings from this study indicate that teaching research to undergraduate FCS students can be an effective learning experience for students and contribute to the body of literature in our field.

AN ANALYSIS OF PRICE AND QUALITY OF FACS SOFTWARE

Brian Camp and Lori Myers

Louisiana Tech University

Purpose. Finding software for use in the FACS classroom is a difficult task for the average educator armed only with the information found in marketing materials. Even word-of-mouth recommendations often leave teachers wishing for better advice. With literally dozens of software programs being marketed to FACS educators, how can teachers make a wise choice without first-hand experience of all products being marketed? The research question being addressed in this study was whether the price paid for a particular software product would be associated with the perceived value of the product.

Procedure. In 1998 researchers and practitioners at Louisiana Tech University began a process of purchasing, using, and evaluating software being marketed to FACS teachers. From 1998 through 2000 more than 65 software programs were purchased and evaluated. Three separate evaluators were trained in the evaluation process. Each rater then evaluated each of the 65 programs.

Since evaluators did not know the price of any of the evaluated software, their reviews were made independently of any information that might influence their evaluation of the products. Reviewers rated each of the 65 products on the “educational value”, “fun”, “user friendliness”, “accuracy of information”, and “graphics quality”. Each of these variables was assessed using a 5-point scale with 5 indicating “excellent”, 4 indicating “good”, 3 indicating “adequate”, 2 indicating “weak”, and 1 indicating “unacceptable”.

Findings.

Correlations were highly significant among the five user-information assessments indicating that the assessment criteria were able to adequately differentiate higher quality programs from lower quality ones. With regard to the research question, there was no correlation of the cost of a program with its perceived value (average score) or any of the individual assessment criteria. Thus, the amount paid for a FACS software program does not appear to be associated with any educational dimension of the program.

Implications.

For many FACS educators this finding will be no surprise. Spending hundreds of dollars only to find out that the program did not perform in the anticipated way appears to be a common experience among our state’s FACS teachers. This research calls for an independent research organization to provide information about the usefulness of FACS software. There are numerous high quality products being sold to FACS educators, but teachers should not believe that the price or other promotional materials indicate the program’s true usefulness in the classroom. Final program reviews and evaluation criteria will be discussed.

IMPLEMENTING CRITICAL SCIENCE-BASED FCS CURRICULUM: PROFESSIONAL TEACHING PRACTICES INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT

Candace K. Fox, Mount Vernon Nazarene College

Janet F. Laster, The Ohio State University

Purpose. The purpose of this research was to develop an instrument to determine the dominant mode of professional teaching practice used to implement a critical science-based FCS curriculum. The research question guiding the development of the instrument was to determine Ohio Work and Family Life secondary teachers’ dominant mode of professional practice when implementing a refined critical science-based curriculum. Wilson and Vaines (1985) described professional practice as teachers’ persistent patterns of action and involvement in certain identifiable ranges of activities. They identified four dimensions of a theoretical framework for the examination of family and consumer sciences teaching practice with each dimension having a different mode of inquiry, purpose of practice, and system of action. If one of the intentions of the Ohio Work and Family Life curriculum guides was to help teachers use the three systems of action, commonly called Technical or Instrumental, Interpretive or Communicative, and Reflective or Emancipatory, then it should be determined whether the teachers were indeed utilizing the different systems and modes of inquiry.

Procedure. The mode of professional practice for implementing the Ohio process-oriented curriculum was determined by a researcher-developed self-report measure, the FCS Curriculum Implementation scale (FCSCI). The instrument was projected to determine if what is occurring in the Ohio Work and Family Life classrooms actually reflects the intended Reflective-Ethical, i.e., practical-problem based, process-oriented perspective rather than a Technical-Rational based curriculum perspective. The 26 items on this scale were intended to help teachers reflect on the importance that they attach to a variety of learning processes as well as professional teaching practices. The instrument developed was adapted from items developed by Chatraphorn (1989) and Ryu (1998) based on the theoretical framework of Wilson and Vaines (1985). Two teacher educators (one out-of-state) and a consultant with the Ohio Department of Education, Family and Consumer Sciences Division, determined content validity of the revised 26-item FCSCI scale prior to its use in this study. A field test of 10 Work and Family Life teachers was also conducted using a preliminary version of the scale. The teachers’ comments led to further revision of the instrument. A random sample of 450 teachers and 45 Teacher-Leader participants were mail surveyed; 297 (60% of sample) useable questionnaires were returned.

Findings. A factor analysis of the items on the FCSCI instrument used in this study determined that the items loaded in a manner consistent with the original theoretical framework of Wilson and Vaines, and refined by Ryu. Six separate factors were extracted using the principal component analysis method and accounting for 56.6% of the variance with the first two factors accounting for 38.1% of the variance. The reliability as calculated for this study yielded a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .87 overall.

Implications. Findings from this study indicate that the reliability of the FCSCI was acceptable but further work to differentiate and clarify items is needed. Efforts to move teachers to the Reflective-Ethical mode of professional practice need to continue. By determining how teachers are practicing, the implementation of the curriculum paradigm and factors affecting the implementation stage could be monitored and supported. Continuing to increase teachers’ understanding of the critical science curriculum perspective as they implement the curriculum is an important goal.

References.

Chatraphorn, S. (1989). Learning efforts and professional teaching practices of vocational home economics educators. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Ohio State University.

Ryu, S. H. (1998). Curriculum orientations and professional teaching practices reported by Korean secondary school home economics teachers and teacher educators. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University.

Wilson, S., & Vaines, E. (1985). A theoretic framework for the examination of practice in home economics. Home Economics Research Journal, 13, 347-355.

ASSESSMENT OF FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES TEACHERS’ TECHNOLOGY USE

Lori A. Myers and Brian Camp

Louisiana Tech University

Purpose. The purpose of the study was to assess current practices for technology use and integration in Family and Consumer Sciences classrooms in one Southern state. More specifically, the study (1) identified the availability of computer technology in the classroom; (2) explored how the technology is integrated into the curriculum; and (3) assessed teachers’ needs regarding the integration of computer technology into the classroom.

Procedure. The sample included approximately 408 Family and Consumer Sciences teachers at the middle and secondary school level. The instrument used was a survey entitled “Assessment of Family and Consumer Sciences Teachers Technology Needs”. The survey was originally developed and pilot-tested by a graduate student in Family and Consumer Sciences Education. Based on additional research by the project directors, questions were added to the survey. The project directors received 142 surveys (35% response rate).

Findings. Of the teachers who responded, approximately 91% of the teachers have one or more computers in their classroom, yet only 40% of them use FACS software in the classroom. On a scale from 1 to 4, mean score for rating overall experience with computers was 1.96 indicating “some experience.” On a scale from 1 to 4, mean score for rating overall comfort level using computers was 2.01 indicating “moderately comfortable.” Teachers identified their basic level of computer use and integration on a scale from 1 (no skill/little integration) to 4 (high skill/ much integration) in the following five areas: Basic Computer Operations (3.12); Integration of Computer Technology (2.46); Instructional Software Use (1.92); Modification of Instructional Delivery (2.57); Use for Professional Growth and Communication (2.50). Approximately 73% of the respondents identified lack of knowledge about ways to integrate technology into the classroom as a “minor” or “major” barrier to including technology in their classrooms and instructional programs. On a scale of 1 (no interest) to 5 (high interest), mean score for interest in “computer software specific to FACS content” was 4.43, and mean score for interest in participating in a “summer workshop” to learn more about technology was 3.59. A variety of other areas of technology needs and uses were also explored.

Implications. The classroom teacher is the key to successful and effective use of technology to improve learning. Are teachers comfortable about integrating technology into the classroom? Family and Consumer Sciences teachers are being asked to integrate computer technology and software in their classrooms. This admonition is being given without any assessment of how ready the teachers are to begin this process. Asking teachers to incorporate technology without first assessing their knowledge and comfort level is a mistake. Just having a computer in a classroom does not mean that the teacher can and will integrate technology into the content area. Also, there are many different levels of technology integration (i.e., primarily student use, teacher use for record-keeping, use of instructional software). Now that technology needs in one state have been assessed, future projects and training can be developed to aid teachers in their quest for technology integration and the appropriate use of software in the classroom.

SUPPLY PIPELINE FOR FCS TEACHERS IN MISSISSIPPI: A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS

Wanda K. Cheek

Mississippi State University

Mississippi, as well as the nation, is facing a critical shortage of high school family and consumer sciences (FCS) teachers (Miller & Meszaros, 1996). Mississippi’s demand for licensed FCS teachers is predicated by the need for at least one FCS teacher in each high school (n = 344) in the state to teach a legislative-mandated course entitled Family Dynamics. To date no studies have been conducted to assess the current supply of FCS teachers in the state as well as the supply in the near future. The purpose of the study was to provide descriptive data on the supply of current FCS teachers practicing in the state and to assess the future supply based on the approaching retirement status for these teachers. The study was completed as part of the AAFCS Millennium Grant Priority III.

Procedure. Exploratory research questions to establish supply were: How many licensed teachers with an FCS endorsement are currently teaching FCS courses and how many are teaching exclusively in non-FCS areas? How many persons holding valid FCS licenses are not currently teaching? How many years of teaching experience do currently practicing FCS teachers have? The assumption was that teachers with 25 years of experience could potentially retire under the guidelines for public school teachers. Existing state Department of Education files for teacher licensure and practicing teachers in 1999-2000 provided the data for the study.

Findings. Initially, it was determined that a total of 1,385 persons held a valid Mississippi teacher’s license with endorsements in FCS areas in 1999-2000. However, only about one-fourth of those persons were actively teaching one or more FCS courses. It is probable that remaining teachers with FCS endorsements were teaching non-FCS courses and have at some time in their career “added on” the FCS endorsement. The others were likely unemployed, employed in non-teaching careers, or living out-of-state. When the licensure endorsements for currently active teachers were examined, 800 teachers held a FCS endorsement. The mean years of teaching experience for this group was 17.01 years. While 25.5% of this group had 10 or less years teaching experience, 19.1% had more than 25 years of teaching experience and can retire.

Implications. The focus of this exploratory study was to query existing databases to determine the potential supply of FCS teachers to meet the employment needs both now and in the near future. It appears that there is a sufficient supply of certified teachers for the time being although the geographic distribution of licensed teachers has produced shortages in some locations in the state, particularly rural areas. The picture for the future, however, is not as clear given the low numbers of FCS teacher educators being produced by the state's universities. It is unknown whether those who are currently teaching in non-FCS fields, those who are employed in non-teaching fields, or those who are unemployed will be willing to fill the demand. Results are preliminary, and further research is needed to clarify the future supply of licensed FCS teachers.

Reference.

Miller, S. H., & Meszaros, P. S. (1996). Study of national incoming supply and demand for family and consumer sciences teachers and extension educators. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 88 (1), 51-54.

ASSESSING THE EDUCATION NEEDS OF UNCERTIFIED FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES TEACHERS

Sue Couch, Sue Reichelt, Ginny Felstehausen and Marilyn Wragg, Texas Tech University

Lora A. Neill, Texas Woman’s University

Rachel Underwood, Stephen F. Austin University

Purpose. The purpose of the study was to determine the needs of uncertified Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) teachers in Texas for course work delivered online. Texas is one of many states with an inadequate supply of certified FCS teachers resulting in the employment of a significant number of teachers who are not certified in the field. The needs assessment was part of an initiative supported by a three-year Higher Education Challenge Grant from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), designed to strengthen the existing Texas FCS Distance Education Alliance. The Alliance, comprised of ten Texas institutions, including the three represented in this study, offers FCS teacher preparation courses online. Online teacher preparation is a particularly appropriate approach to resolving the problem of a teacher shortage in Texas. For example, of the ten Alliance institutions, only one (Texas Tech University) is located west of the Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex. This leaves vast areas in the western and southwestern portions of the state unserved by a certification program and makes it extremely difficult for uncertified teachers, employed full time, to complete certification requirements.

Procedure. Data were collected by surveying currently employed FCS teachers who are not fully certified. Surveys were distributed at the Texas Professional Development Conference for FCS Teachers and at the State Conference for New FCS Teachers and were mailed to Career and Technology Education Directors in local school districts and to new members of the Family and Consumer Sciences Teachers Association of Texas. A total of 44 uncertified teachers responded. Data collection was completed during the summer and fall of 2001.

Findings. Of the 44 teachers who responded, only about one-third indicated that they currently were enrolled in a certification program. Of these (n=15), nine were enrolled at one of the FCS Alliance institutions and six were enrolled in an alternative certification program. When responding to the question, “What courses or course content do you need to complete FCS certification?” teaching methods and other professional development courses (n=9) and occupationally specific courses (n=5) were most frequently identified. Almost all FCS content areas were identified as courses needed by some respondents. It should be noted that many of those not currently enrolled in a certification program were unable to identify the courses they needed to complete certification. All of those responding indicated that they had the computer access and the technology skills to complete online course work.

Implications. Although the survey respondents represent only a small portion of the state’s uncertified FCS teachers, the results confirm that online teacher preparation will serve a useful purpose for this particular audience. Access to online courses should be beneficial to teachers seeking alternative certification as well as those enrolled in traditional university-based programs. The findings are being utilized to guide the work of the USDA supported distance education initiative and to inform uncertified teachers of the opportunity for online teacher preparation course work. The fact that a majority of the respondents were not enrolled in a teacher certification program and were unaware of what courses they needed to complete certification is a cause for concern. It is likely that many uncertified teachers have specialized degrees in a narrowly focused FCS major, and will therefore need a considerable amount of course work to complete certification requirements. It is unfortunate that they have begun a teaching career with no realistic understanding of what these requirements are.

CREDIT CARD KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES OF SROP 2000 SCHOLARS

Zara Davis

The Pennsylvania State University

Purpose. The Summer Research Opportunities Program (SROP) is a program at a large university, designed to attract talented undergraduate students to careers in academia and to enhance their preparation for graduate study through research experiences with faculty mentors. The purpose of this study was to determine the knowledge and use of credit cards by the SROP 2000 scholars.

Methodology. The study was descriptive. A 28-item questionnaire was developed specifically to satisfy the objectives of the study. Questions were adapted from established questionnaires that focused on consumer credit management practices of adults and teenagers. The questionnaire was divided into three sections, credit card practices, credit card knowledge, and demographics. There were a total of 33 SROP 2000 scholars in the program; twenty-eight (28) useable surveys were completed by SROP scholars, yielding a response rate of 85%. Ten items constituted the credit card knowledge section of the questionnaire. Scholars were considered knowledgeable if they answered 70% or more of the 10-items correctly. Students were moderately knowledgeable if they answered 50% to 69% of the 10-items correctly and were unknowledgeable if they answered 49% or fewer correctly.

Findings. Seventy-five percent of SROP scholars owned at least one credit card and 82% of cardholding scholars had credit card debt below $1000. Eighty-two percent (82%) of scholars either paid more than the minimum payment or the entire monthly balance. Scholars were provided with a list of reasons for obtaining a credit card. Students said that they obtained a credit card 1) to build a credit history (71%), 2) because it was more convenient than cash (57%), 3) because they were short on cash (33%) and, 4) because it offered them freedom to buy whatever they wanted (29%). The average knowledge score was 5.1 and only 18% of scholars were classified as being knowledgeable about credit cards. Furthermore, only thirty-two percent (32.1%) of credit card owning scholars knew that the annual percentage rate (APR) was the most important factor to consider when shopping for a credit card, while 14.3% of the non-credit card owning scholars knew the importance of the APR.

Implications. If this study were repeated, future areas of study include surveying SROP scholars at different campuses to determine the similarities and differences among scholars. Though this study had a small number of participants, hopefully, it will prompt research into the credit card practices and knowledge among future SROP scholars, therefore offering a larger pool of data to examine and draw conclusions. Although scholars were not knowledgeable about credit cards, their debt level was lower than levels cited in other studies and their repayment habits were such that they avoided excessive finance charges. Factors other than knowledge might be influencing the scholars’ debt load and repayment habits. When instructing ethnic minority students about credit cards, teachers might continue to highlight the steps of wise use and also learn about the students’ management strategies and reasons for the way they handle credit card debt. Note that SROP scholars were above average students who were seen as potential graduate students.

THE INFLUENCE OF AGE, TEACHING EXPERIENCE, AND SCHOOL COMMUNITY ON THE PROFESSIONAL AND PERSONAL SATISFACTION OF FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES EDUCATORS

Sharon Jeffcoat Bartley and Christopher Thomas Sneed

University of Tennessee

Purpose. A paucity of research exists on Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) educators’ professional and personal satisfaction. The purpose of this study was to survey FCS secondary educators to determine their satisfaction with five life domains—the teaching profession, their way of life, their health, their leisure activities, and where they lived. In addition, the relationship between age of educator, years of teaching experience, and school community (rural, suburban, urban) on satisfaction scores was examined.

Procedure. FCS educators teaching in public schools in a southern state were solicited by mail during the 2000-2001 academic school year. The researchers designed and developed a questionnaire asking educators to indicate using a three-point Likert scale their satisfaction (extremely satisfied, somewhat satisfied, not satisfied) with their profession, way of life, health, leisure activities, and where they lived. Demographic data—including age, years of teaching service, and school community—were compiled to characterize the sample.

Findings. A total of 291 educators returned surveys, resulting in a response rate of 46%. Findings were reported using descriptive statistics, frequencies, percentages, means, standard deviations, and MANOVA. Based on the satisfaction scores of FCS educators, high levels of satisfaction across the life domains were reported—65% of educators were extremely satisfied with their teaching careers, 69.1% were extremely satisfied with their lives, 49.8% were extremely satisfied with their health, 70% were extremely satisfied with their leisure activities, and 76.6% were extremely satisfied with where they made their homes. Correlations reveal no significant relationship between age/years of teaching and school community on satisfaction scores. However, a very weak relationship exists between satisfaction across the life domains and where the educator taught. MANOVA results indicate that overall, educators who taught in urban areas had slightly lower satisfaction scores across the life domains than did educators who taught in rural and suburban areas.

Implications: Education in today’s society has received negative press and the teaching profession has been portrayed as a less than desirable career choice. However, high satisfaction scores for this population across the life domains challenges this paradigm, and supports the notion that education is a viable and satisfying profession. More importantly, the high satisfaction scores of educators provide fuel for the recruitment of new students into a profession that awards its members with high degrees of professional and personal satisfaction. An expanded research focus is necessary to determine the implications of school community on satisfaction and to determine if the high satisfaction rates remain constant given other geographic populations and/or across longitudinal studies.

ADOLESCENT PREGNANCY PREVENTION PROGRAM EVALUATION: A MULTIYEAR COMPARISON OF RESILIENCE, VALUES, AND BEHAVIOR

Jo Lynn Cunningham and Delores Smith

The University of Tennessee

Despite national reductions in the teen pregnancy rate in the U.S., the rate still in the highest in the industrialized world (Alan Guttmacher Institute, 2000). One of the key factors thought to be responsible for the downward trend is an increase in sexual abstinence among teens (Darroch & Singh, 1999), brought about by the implementation of family life curricula and improved education regarding sexually transmitted diseases (Tennessee Commission on Children and Youth, 2000). The purpose of this study was to compare resilience, values, and behavior of teens participating in a school-based abstinence-only teen pregnancy prevention program in a predominantly rural county in the southeastern U.S. over a 3-year period.

The intervention included a combination of six components: the Baby Think It Over, the Empathy Belly, the Managing Pressures Before Marriage curriculum, a peer education team, the Act SMART HIV/AIDS curriculum, and field trips to a regional health Discovery Center. Students in a sample of upper elementary, middle, and secondary schools participating in the pregnancy prevention program completed pretests early in the academic year and posttests near the end of the year. Matched pretest-posttest data were available for 281 students in Year 1, 184 in Year 2, and 177 in Year 3. Students completed self-report measures of resilience (social support, self-esteem, self-efficacy, future plans and goals, prosocial behaviors) and positive values and behavior (intention to have sexual intercourse, sexual values, educational aspirations, substance use, and substance use intent). Multivariate and univariate analyses of variance were computed, along with associated descriptive statistics.

Multivariate and associated univariate tests revealed few differences from pretest to posttest for either resilience or positive values and behavior for any of the 3 years. However, there were significant differences across the 3 years for posttest scores for both resiliency and for positive values and behavior. Univariate tests and post hoc analyses reflected differences for most variables between Years 1 and 2, 1 and 3, and 2 and 3. The differences were in the desired direction for positive values and behavior but in the opposite direction for resilience.

Results reflect the challenges of effective programming for reducing teen sexual activity, particularly changes in underlying psychological mechanisms. However, sustained efforts can lead to changes in specifically targeted values and behavior.

References.

Alan Guttmacher Institute (2000). United States and the Russian Federation lead the developed world in teen pregnancy. Retrieved December 12, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://www.agi-usa.org/pubs/archives/newsrelease3201a.html

Darroch, J. E., & Singh, S. (1999). Why is teenage pregnancy declining? The roles of abstinence, sexual activity and contraceptive use (Occasional Report No. 1). New York: Alan Guttmacher Institute.

Tennessee Commission on Children and Youth. (2000). Tennessee kids count 2000: The state of the child in Tennessee, 2000. Nashville, TN: Author.

CREATING A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE: A STUDY OF THE VOLUNTARY SIMPLICITY MOVEMENT

Roxana A. Dove

Tennessee Technological University

Purpose. Voluntary simplicity has been reported as one of the top trends according to the Trends Research Institute. By 2002, an estimated 88.5 million people will be pursuing a scaled-down lifestyle. Although numerous writings tell about the joys of simple living, the academic community has largely ignored his phenomenon. The purpose of this research was to study the voluntary simplicity movement specifically focusing on: what voluntary simplicity is, the history of the movement, and the factors that set the stage for this movement to emerge.

Procedure. A qualitative content analysis was used to study the voluntary simplicity movement. Data sources for this research study included books, journals, and webpages written by members of the voluntary simplicity movement. While reading the material, notes were taken to focus specific concepts. Data analysis consisted of coding the data, which entailed a systematic connection of categories, developing relationships and themes, and validating findings through the creation of a diagram of the voluntary simplicity movement.

Findings. The content analysis revealed four themes of the voluntary simplicity movement: “voluntary simplicity,” “agenda for the voluntary simplicity movement,” “problems with modern society,” and “why simplify.” Voluntary simplicity involves the totality of the individual in which all areas of his/her life are in harmony with one another. Voluntary simplicity also has a collective element, which consist of a consciousness of how one’s life is in harmony with others and the environment. In part, the voluntary simplicity movement is being credited to the economic realities of the 1990s; downsizing vs. overwork. Many families have experienced job loss, while others are faced with working overtime to compete with slow growing wages. However, the concept of voluntary simplicity is not new. Simple living has always been a prominent aspect of American life. Individuals choosing to simplify in the 1990s echo the “problems” of the 1950s, indicating that values of simplicity emerge after cycles of high spending.

Implications. This research has meaningful implications for families, communities, and businesses. The research provides insight into the values of a group that can be beneficial in improving services to families and creating sustainable communities. The study also broadens the knowledge about the connection between families, communities, and society, and the potential for social change that exists with the voluntary simplicity movement. Steps need to be taken by members of the voluntary simplicity movement to become more organized as a social movement and develop a common identity. The implications for family and consumer sciences include supporting families in their quest for work/life balance, advocating for policies that strengthen families and allow them to function at their highest potential, and continue financial literacy programs.

FACTORS AFFECTING CHINESE PARENTS’ SEXUALITY EDUCATION FOR ADOLESCENTS IN THE FAMILY

Wenli Liu and Carolyn Pope Edwards

University of Nebraska-Lincoln

Purpose. To explore parental knowledge, attitudes, and practices about sexuality education for adolescents in China, to explain what factors predict Chinese parents’ practices about sexuality education for adolescents, and to uncover how these factors are interrelated.

Procedure. This study used a cross-sectional, multi-site survey design. The data were collected by questionnaires distributed to the sampled subjects through the assistance of teachers in China. Three cities were selected for the survey: Beijing, Xian, and Shanghai. One geographic district from each of these 3 cities was sampled, and then one middle school and one high school were sampled from each district. One or two classes from different grades were chosen for sampling in each school. To be included in the study, parents needed to have a child in middle or high school. With the assistance and permission of school administrators and personnel, questionnaires were sent home to parents through their students, filled out by either parent, and then mailed back to the researchers. The envelopes contained information about the study, instructions, and invitation to voluntarily participate. A total of 960 copies of the questionnaire were distributed, and 841 were included in the final analyses. The research questions were addressed through regression analysis.

Findings. The majority of Chinese parents were found to have reasonably accurate knowledge about sexuality. The majority of Chinese parents were found to have positive attitudes toward sexuality and sexuality education. However, many Chinese parents were found not to provide effective and comprehensive sex-related information to their children. Parents reported that the most difficult thing for them to talk with their children about sexuality was they didn’t know how to talk with children about sexuality. Compared to Hockenberry-Eaton and colleagues’ (1996) study, Chinese parents had higher percentages of correct answers on some sexual development terms (ovulation, wet dreams, menstruation, ejaculation, semen, and hormones). The average correct rate of these terms for Chinese parents was 80.4%, for American parents was 48.45%. Compared to Bloch’s (1979) study, Chinese mothers (83.1%) shared the views of American mothers (83.9%), that parents should be the ones primarily responsible for sexuality education. Gender of parent, parental knowledge about sexuality, and parental attitudes toward sexuality education for adolescents, were found to be significant predictors of parental practices about sexuality education for adolescents. Gender of child, age of child, and parents education were not found to be significant predictors of parental practices about sexuality education for adolescents.

Implications. Universities and research institutions should develop more parent sexuality education programs or classes to provide appropriate information about sexuality and teach the communication skill about sexuality for parents. Chinese government should give more priority to sexuality education for adolescents in the family.

THE EFFECT OF CARPET FIBER ON THE GROWTH OF HOUSE-DUST MITES

Glenda G. Andes, Kathleen R. Parrott, Judith A. Mollet and Hsiu I. Chen-Yu

Virginia Tech

Dust mite (dermatophagiodes farinae) excreta are one of the most common allergens worldwide. In humid areas of the US, nearly 100% of homes have mites present. The greatest concentration of mites within homes are usually in areas of high use where humans shed skin, such as beds, upholstered furniture, and carpeted floors. Health care practitioners have recommended the removal of carpets from homes of people with mite allergies. This recommendation is made despite the fact that very little research has been done in the area of carpet characteristics that influence the number of mites in different types of carpet. Little, if any, consideration is given to the benefits of carpet in the home, including beauty, economy, and safety.

The allergen and mite research regarding carpets has had mixed results, and little attention has been paid to the variables that could exist within the carpet. Carpets are rarely described as having unique characteristics that affect construction, appearance, wearability, and cleanability.

Purpose. Could different characteristics of carpet influence mite growth? Could carpets constructed of fibers that retain more moisture provide a more supportive environment for the existence of mites? The purpose of this study, therefore, was to determine, if under identical, controlled environmental conditions, mites will exist in equal numbers in similarly constructed carpets designed with differentfibers.

Procedure. The null hypothesis was: H_O : C_W = C_N = C_P, where C_{W is} wool carpet, C_N is nylon carpet, and C_P is polypropylene (olefin) carpet. Seventy-two pieces of commercially available, residential flooring materials (18 of each carpet fiber and 18 hard surface flooring as a control) were inoculated with identical numbers of mites, Dermatophagiodes farinae, and were maintained in a textiles Conditioning Lab, under identical, environmentally controlled conditions for 6 weeks. Then the mites were extracted and counted.

Findings. The null hypothesis was rejected. Statistically significant differences existed (F=33.604, p=.0000) among flooring types. Duncan’s Multiple Range test (p<.01) determined that there were significant differences between: 1) hard floor and nylon carpet; 2) hard floor and olefin carpets; 3) wool and nylon carpets; and 4) wool and olefin carpets. However, there was no difference between hard floor and wool carpet.

Implications. The hard surface floor had significantly fewer mites than the nylon or olefin carpets. However, the wool carpet, with the highest moisture regain, was comparable to the hard surface flooring in the number of mites grown. Could the explanation be that mothproofing treatments of wool carpet fibers also protect against mites? Could the less expensive and more frequently used nylon carpets be similarly treated? If so, we could enjoy the benefits of carpet, with lower exposure to dangerous mite allergens. The results of this study demonstrate that there is a significant difference in the numbers of mites growing in different flooring microenvironments. If different fiber types resulted in differences in mite growth, then other carpet characteristics need to be investigated, such as fiber construction and pile height and density.

USE OF KITCHEN VENTILATION: IMPACT ON INDOOR AIR QUALITY

Kathleen Parrott, JoAnn Emmel and Julia Beamish

Virginia Tech

Indoor air and human health is a major housing issue. Litigation and insurance claims have increased for mold damage both to the home’s structure and occupants’ health. Allergies and asthma have increased and biological pollutants exacerbate these illnesses. Biological pollutants require a moist environment. Cooking a dinner for a family of four releases 1.22 pints of water into the air, more than double if a gas range is used. Only 4 to 6 pints of water vapor will raise the humidity level of a 1000 square foot house by 5% (Murphy, 1999).

Purpose. Regular use of kitchen exhaust ventilation systems is one method to control excess moisture in a home and reduce the potential for problems with biological pollutants. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to examine the use of kitchen ventilation systems and to determine why consumers use the systems the way they do.

Procedure. A comprehensive study of kitchen usage was conducted by the Center for Real Life Kitchen Design at Virginia Tech. In one phase (personal interview), participants were asked about their use of kitchen ventilation systems. Households (78) in a purposive sample were selected for distribution of household size, types, and ages. Household size ranged from 1 to 5, (mean of 2.5), with 39% family, 36% couple, and 21% single households. Participants were from age 19 to 87 (mean of 46.6). Participants were frequent cooks: 68% cooked complete meals five or more times per week and 97% prepared dinner regularly. Over half (51%) of the participants had respiratory problems, including allergies, asthma, or chronic lung disease.

Findings. Only 8% of the participants use ventilation whenever they cook, while 24% use ventilation “almost never” or only once in a while. The most frequent occasions to use the ventilation system are when: lots of steam forms (40%); burn something (26%); or cook certain foods (26%). When using the oven, 46% never use ventilation, while 28% only use ventilation for oily/greasy foods and 17% for smelly foods.

The most frequent reasons for using the ventilation system were: get odors out (47%); get smoke out (45%); get steam out (23%); remove heat (20%); or control grease (14%). The most frequent reasons for not using a ventilation system were that it was too noisy (48%), not sure it is necessary (48%), or do not think about it (20%). There was no unique pattern of usage of ventilation between electric or gas ranges.

Implications. This study suggests cooks use ventilation systems to solve problems, and not to prevent air quality problems. Controlling moisture in the home is generally not a factor. Avoiding the ventilation system due to noise is not surprising. However, half the sample did not even think ventilation necessary. Kitchen ventilation systems are not being used to their full potential to help prevent indoor air quality problems in the home. Manufacturers need to make the ventilation systems user-friendlier. Housing educators need to make the value of kitchen ventilation systems better understood.

Reference.

Murphy, W. (1999). IAQ building science instructional module. In Vogel, M. & McMindes, K. (Ed.) Healthy Indoor Air for America’s Homes. (3^rd edition). Bozeman, MT: MSU Extension Service.

HOUSING IN GHANA: A QUALITATIVE STUDY

Cheryl A. Farr, Oklahoma State University

Brecca R. Farr, University of Alabama

Housing and community are important to individuals as a place of shelter for protection and safety, as a means of moderating the climate and environment for comfort, as a place to express one’s identify and culture, and as a place of belonging within a community. Cultural identify, through housing and community, is used by some traditional societies to maintain ties to the past and to give new generations a sense of belonging to a group that provides a sense of self. However, in today’s world with increasing pressures to “follow the job” or seek advancement through relocation, strong cultural traditions may be lost. As urban sprawl engulfs small rural communities, traditional housing forms may be lost.

In many developing countries, the drive for modernization in a rapidly changing world may result in the incorporation new technology into traditional housing form. Examples of new technologies include building materials and appliances. Infrastructure development brings highway systems that allow rural residents to commute to cities and allow new building materials to be transported to remote locations. The coming of electricity, from centralized power systems or from individually owned gas powered generators, opens the potential for a wide assortment of household appliances. In the midst of this change, some cultures with long standing traditions become assimilated into the “modern world” and loose much of their cultural identity, while other cultures seek to retain cultural identify by keeping traditional communities intact. In Ghana, many of the traditional cultures have been successful in maintaining cultural identity by retaining close ties to the ancestral village even thought one would have a blue collar, white collar or professional position in an urban area. Understanding the change that is occurring in housing is one way of understanding the cultural changes in the larger context. Thus, the purpose of this study was to document the existing forms of traditional housing within the village, town and city context and to identify evidence of modernization of traditional housing in villages and towns.

Data were collected from onsite observations and interviews in Ghana. Photographs of housing in central and southern Ghana were used to confirm observations and field notes. Photographs of communities of various sizes ranged from small rural villages to large cities, such as Kumasi and Accra. Content analysis of over 1200 photographs was used to identify and code different housing styles, materials, and construction methods. Yin’s (1994) pattern matching logic was used to group (1) housing styles with similar characteristics and (2) housing groups based of combinations of different housing styles. The first set of grouping was used to identify specific and identifiable housing styles with categories based on size, shape, method of construction and materials. The second set of grouping was based on the housing styles found within any given village or town.

Findings from the study yielded four categories for each of the two groupings. Four traditional housing style categories immerged from the data: (1) round or cylinder shape adobe walls with a conical thatched roof; (2) cube-like shape adobe with a thatch roof; (3) cube-like shape made from adobe and having a corrugated metal roof; and (4) cube-like shape made from manufactured materials and having a corrugated metal roof. Four housing group categories emerged from the data: (1) small rural village with homogeneity of housing form, the cube-like square adobe with thatched roof; (2) larger rural village with homogeneity of form as identified in the previous category, but incorporating new building materials such as cinder blocks and corrugated metal; and (3) rural towns with housing as identified in the previous two categories, but with the addition of visible signs of electric appliances, as evidence by items such as television antenna. It is interesting to note that some of the most homogeneous villages with traditional housing were found with in easy walking distance of towns and small cities; others were in remote agricultural areas. In some villages, the way adobe and manufactured building materials combined would indicate an embracing of the more durable manufactured materials into the traditional cube-like shapes.

Implications from these findings indicate that through understanding how technology, especially manufactured building materials is gradually incorporated into the housing, the traditional form is gradually eroded. By extension, one can understand how the culture itself might be eroded as the housing adapts and changes as modernization encroaches on tradition. It will be interesting to observe the changes I the housing and cultural traditions of Ghanaians during the coming years. Will Ghanaians retain the strong ties to the culture and ancestral village as housing forms change and evolve? Only a future study will tell.

Reference.

Yin, R.K. (1994). Case Study Research Design and Methods, 2^nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

COMMUNITY HOUSING PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS AND SPECIAL NEEDS AUDIENCES

Shirley Niemeyer

University of Nebraska - Lincoln

Purpose. Viable housing options are needed in our communities to sustain individuals and families with special needs. Housing problems are typically grouped into four basic categories: affordability, availability, adequacy, and appropriateness for the general population. These same broad categories of problems are often applied to special needs audiences as well. The purposes of this paper are to identify the types of community housing problems and solutions perceived by special needs audiences relevant to their circumstances, to compare and contrast the problems and solutions within and between focus groups, and then to compare these focus group themes with the four categories to discover any similarities and differences.

Procedure. The nine special needs populations represented in the focus group interviews included: Native American Indians, homeless and near homeless, Temporary Assistance to Needy Families, migrant workers, elderly, persons who are physically, mentally and developmentally disabled, and persons with HIV/AIDS. Eighteen focus group interviews were conducted in six regions of the state. The composition of the focus groups included 73 males (36%) and 128 females (64%) - 125 housing providers and 76 consumers. Thirty-six hours of focus group sessions were transcribed totaling 650 pages.

An extensive listing of the community housing and related organizations, agencies, and institutions were compiled. The State Resource Referral System web-based data source, other state and agency websites and an advisory committee were used to obtain the categories of housing and related programs in the state and to guide the process of identifying the potential participants for the focus groups.

Participants from the special needs audiences were selected by the snowball or chain method of sampling for thirteen of the 18 focus group interviews. This method identifies “cases” of interest from people who know people who know what cases are information-rich (Creswell, 1998). The remaining five consumer focus groups (migrant, persons who are mentally ill, physically disabled, and HIV/AIDS, and homeless consumers) were convenience samples due to the need for confidentiality and protection. They were contacted by the agency professionals.

The focus group interviews included eight to twelve representatives of the housing and housing related service providers for that special need, and then with the representatives of the special need population. Special needs that were addressed in conducting the focus groups included linguistic, visual and auditory accommodations, transportation, physical disabilities, cultural differences, health and safety, and privacy.

The qualitative data analyses QSR N5 software [Nonnumerical Unstructured Data Indexing, Searching and Theorizing program (formerly NUD*IST)] was used for data analyses. The nodes search was used to find relationships between passages coded by different nodes and between concepts. Categories used include housing costs (including energy and utilities), safety, condition, attitude, discrimination, meets household needs, policy and law, health, community infrastructure (transportation, etc.) cultural norms; needs and barriers or gaps, existing programs and solutions with the community. The data were also analyzed by traditional methods of identifying themes. Each theme was compared to every other theme and classified according to similar characteristics.

Findings. The findings address problems related to income and affordability, health and physical, mental and developmental challenges, cultural norms and social support systems in the community, barriers created by policy or law, adequacy and availability of housing stock in the area, gaps in housing programs and related services, and the need for more interagency cooperation and communication. Primary findings also identify lack of education about housing and housing programs, communication gaps and lack of awareness of program availability, and difficulty overcoming existing barriers. Stigma and discrimination were issues identified along with lack of program flexibility and existing rules to meet some of the urgent needs.

Implications. The unique problems and solutions identified by these special needs audiences may increase our understanding of how to address the housing barriers facing special needs populations in communities. The common categorical terms in the popular and some research literature may not be an accurate reflection of the groupings of housing problems facing special needs audiences. With further study, the findings may have application in education, policy development, funding, and in agency program operations that shape viable communities.

Reference.

Creswell, J.W. (1998) Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. London: Sage.

DESIGNING VIABLE COMMUNITY HOUSING FOR OLDER ADULTS

Kenneth R. Tremblay, Jr., Colorado State University

Adetania Pramanik, Texas Tech University

Purpose. Viable community housing for older adults can entail designing housing to allow people to age in place. Advantages of aging in place from a national standpoint include conservation of building-related resources, a reduced need for construction of nursing homes and improvement of quality of life for a significant proportion of the American population. From an individual standpoint, older persons can remain in homes in which they live independently, feel comfortable and have ample room for furniture and treasures collected over the years. As the older population continues to increase in total numbers and as a percentage of the American population, there is a need to provide information to assist older persons to remain in their homes. In 2001 there were almost 35 million Americans aged 65 and over, which is projected to reach 70 million by 2030. Surveys reveal that approximately 85% of older persons want to remain in their homes for as long as possible, although one-half of those homes were built prior to 1960. Other research suggests that the need for personal assistance with everyday activities increases from 9% for those 65-69 to 50% for those 85 and older. The purpose of this paper is to describe and evaluate an educational program on home modifications directed at older adults.

Procedure. A Cooperative Extension educational program was developed on home modifications, defined as adaptations to the home that make it more comfortable, safer and easier to carry out daily activities. Rather than older persons moving to new housing or adjusting their own behaviors based on the deficiencies of their homes, information was produced to help them select and perform modifications. Such modifications are typically based on a normal aging process involving health-related changes (such as arthritis and respiratory problems), reduction in motor capacities (difficulty in bending knees and back), sensory and perceptual changes (loss of visual and auditory acuity) and cognitive changes (decreases in reaction time). Possible home modifications were collected from guidelines in the Fair Housing Amendments Act, the Americans with Disabilities Act, the National Research Center on Supportive Housing and Home Modifications, and the growing number of articles and books on universal design. An Internet search was also conducted on Cooperative Extension aging programs in the U.S.

Findings. Based on collected information, a program was developed consisting of (1) overhead transparencies on demographics, physical changes in aging, the significance of housing and home modifications; (2) interactive exercises of possible modifications in the kitchen, bathroom, bedroom and living room; (3) the video “Home Sweet Home”; (4) product catalogs; (5) 38 assistive devices; and (6) illustration boards displaying floor plans, materials and rendered perspectives to show program participants how modifications might look in their homes. Home modifications presented in the program included those that were simple and inexpensive such as removing or securing doormats or throw rugs, eliminating extension cords and keeping cords out of the flow of traffic, and using contrasting colors to provide important objects more visibility. There were numerous more difficult and expensive home modifications discussed that should be considered carefully based on specific needs such as confining living quarters to one floor, changing the placement of kitchen and bathroom cabinets, installing more built-in lighting and purchasing an electronically adjustable bed. The materials for the program were all contained in a suitcase weighing approximately 20 pounds. With wheels and a handle it was relatively easy to mail, carry and roll to needed locations. The materials could be varied depending on number of program participants, amount of presentation time and learning objectives. Fourteen programs were conducted in 2001, receiving positive responses from participants who particularly appreciated the tactile and visual experience relating to potential modifications. The Cooperative Extension educators who delivered the program commented on their ability to mix and match different components based on their needs.

Implications. It was stressed to participants that by making simple and often inexpensive changes to their homes, they could prevent accidents and falls as well as improve their comfort and safety. Large-scale changes such as converting a main floor living room into a master bedroom and bathroom were suggested as needing assistance from an interior designer. Providing information to older people on how to properly redesign their homes should allow an increasing number of Americans to age in place. This educational program represents an example of how to deliver practical information on viable community housing.

SERVING IN A NEW SOCIETY: A SUSTAINING MODEL OF SERVICE LEARNING ABROAD

D. Cowan, L. Kagima, M. Torrie, C. Hausafus and R. Faber Machacha

Iowa State University

Purpose. To create a study abroad service learning program model that enables students to consider living and studying in a developing nation, integrate academic instruction and reflection in field study, shape their actions in response to community needs, study with Kenyan scholars at a premiere East African University, and be of service to their host community.

Procedure. Through a partnership forged between Iowa State University (ISU), Ames, Iowa and Egerton University (EU), Njoro, Kenya, the program directors created a program model for a group of ISU students to study abroad for five weeks. Program directors identified the value of service learning as a component of the program, and in partnership with local service organizations, identified a recently-opened street children’s rehabilitation center as a service priority in the community. Kenyan street children range in age from 4-16 and are typically turned out into the streets by families unable to care for them, forcing the children to scavenge on the periphery of society.

ISU oriented students to the considerations of living and studying in a developing country and EU oriented students to the campus and offered academic courses taught by local scholars. ISU required student participation in an academic class that synthesized the experiential learning of field work, service learning, and reflection.

At the beginning, and upon program completion, students answered surveys and questionnaires assessing their emotional self awareness, the value they placed upon service learning, and their academic comprehension of country-specific subject matter. Throughout the experience, students also reflected in journals required for the ISU class.

Findings. Pre-departure orientation equipped students with significantly improved academic comprehension of Kenya-related subject matter. Assessment before and after service learning showed increases in awareness of the student’s emotional self, understanding of community-identified service needs, and the value of service learning. Students indicated increased willingness for civic involvement and community service after finishing the course with the service learning component. In their reflections, students described service learning as being highly influential in their own intellectual, civic, and affective development.

Implications. Service learning will continue to be an integral part of the ISU study abroad model based on the value gained by students, impact on the local Kenyan community, and increased involvement and support from Iowa service clubs for programs in developing countries. Future programs will include increased student involvement in continuous planning and additional assessment. Research on the implications of service learning during study abroad immersion in a developing nation will continue as more data are collected and ongoing assessments are made.

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION: A SURVEY OF UNIVERSITY FOOD SERVICE CUSTOMERS

Margaret Kihato, Phyllis Mercer and Carolyn Bednar

Texas Woman’s University

This pilot study was an effort to describe attributes of service that are important for satisfaction among university foodservice customers. A convenience sample of 60 students was surveyed using a ten-item questionnaire designed to gather information on: (1) the respondents’ general criteria for evaluation of service; (2) the respondents’ perceptions during a single meal encounter at the university foodservice cafeteria. Due to incomplete response, only data from 50 respondents was analyzed. For data analysis, questionnaire items were grouped into two categories: (1) evaluation of service; (2) customer satisfaction. Statistical Package in Social Sciences 1.0 for Windows ’95 was used to summarize the data.

When asked to list factors that come to mind when dining out, the respondents listed aspects as well as attributes of service. Many of them listed aspects such as taste of food; timeliness; speed; choices; temperature; friendliness; and environment suggesting that these were the primary concern or at least the main basis of service evaluation. The aspects were grouped under five attributes of service quality namely; food quality, quality of service, atmosphere, timing, and flexibility for subsequent data summary.

When asked to indicate the level of importance of the attributes in contributing to their satisfaction with a single meal encounter at the university food service, a high percent of respondents (72%) indicated that food quality was extremely important. Table 1 shows the number of respondents who indicated each attribute as extremely important, very important and important respectively.

Table 1: Customer Satisfaction

Rating	Food Quality	Flexibility	Service Quality	Timing	Atmosphere
Extremely Important	36	22	14	13	7
Very Important	10	13	17	11	9
Important	3	9	10	15	16

Although the level of importance attached to the attributes differs among the respondents, in general they considered the attributes to be important for their satisfaction. Food quality and flexibility (menu choices) were rated extremely high by 72% and 44% of respondents respectively as criteria for determining how well a meal service met the respondents' expectations. Although 58% of the respondents indicated that the service that they received was friendly, more than half of the respondents rated the overall quality of the service as average. Researchers point out that food components that form the core service or content could dominate over other attributes in the overall evaluation of service quality by the customer. It is therefore not surprising that a relatively high percentage (44% of the respondents) rated the service that they received at the university food service outlets as average in terms of how well it met their expectations. These results indicate that university foodservice managers should pay particular attention to food quality, flexibility, and service quality in order to satisfy the student customer.

Future research based on Critical Incidence Technique and using qualitative methods of data collection would yield descriptive data that could be generalized to the larger group of customers. Managers could use such data to construct customer centered service scenarios aimed at raising the level of customer satisfaction.

References.

Johns, N. (199) What is this thing called service? European Journal of Marketing 33(9) 958.

Kivela, J., & Yiu, H. (2001) Delivering Quality Service: Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research.

Lumbert, C, & Wanjoe, L. (2000) Impact of Waiting Time on Evaluation of Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction in Foodservice Operations: Food Service Research International12:241-4.

Uksel, A, &. Yuksel, F (2001) The Expectancy -Disconfirmation Paradigm: A Critique: Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research 25(2) 107-131.

BODY MASS INDEX, BODY IMAGE PERCEPTION, AND WEIGHT LOSS PRACTICES AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS

Padmini Shankar, Diana Cone and Jennie Dilworth

Georgia Southern University

Purpose. The purpose of the project was to study the influence of body mass index on body image perception and weight loss practices among college students.

Procedure. A convenient sample of 156 undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory nutrition course at a regional university in the southeast participated in the study. Each student self-reported data on eating and dieting behaviors, exercise habits, weight concerns, body image attitudes, psychological well-being, and demographic information.

Findings. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated for each student by means of self-reported height and weight. Based on BMI standards, 6% were classified as underweight, 67% were normal, 20% overweight, 5% obese and 2% extremely obese. Student responses on the questionnaire revealed that even though 67% of the sample were in the normal weight category, only 58% perceived themselves to be normal. Thirty-three percent of the students perceived themselves to be overweight and 45% were not satisfied with their looks. Sixty-three percent reported that they were trying to lose weight. Pearson correlation was used to analyze the association between BMI, exercise frequency, body image perception, how students felt about the way they look, whether they were trying to gain or lose weight, and if they had ever participated in a weight loss program. Significant correlation was found for BMI and each category of body image perception. At higher BMI students perceived themselves to be overweight or obese. Only 9% of the sample within the normal range on the BMI saw themselves as too heavy. To identify their level of satisfaction with body image, students were asked how they felt about the way they looked. Students with a lower BMI were more likely to feel satisfied with their appearance (-.28). There was a small but significant negative correlation (-.19) between BMI and exercise frequency indicating that exercise alone does not impact BMI. The majority of students accurately identified their weight with the established weight categories. Only 27% were classified as over the recommended weight, yet nearly two-thirds of the sample were trying to lose weight. The results of this study indicate that weight loss practices are not necessarily connected to body mass index or to body image perception.

Implications. Based on these findings, further investigation into weight loss strategies is necessary to promote healthier dieting practices among college students. In addition, differences in eating behaviors and body image perceptions among males verses females should be analyzed. Family and Consumer Sciences professionals need to work together to better educate college students regarding body image perceptions by encouraging positive attitudes.

ENHANCING BIOSAFETY OF CONSUMABLE FOOD PRODCUTS THROUGH NOVEL BIFIDOGENIC COMPOUND

S. A. Ibrahim, S. R. K. Dharmavaram, R. Purcell, C. W. Seo and G. Shahbazi,

North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University

Escherichia coli O157H7 is one of the leading causes of bacterial foodborne disease outbreaks in the united States. An estimated 73, 000 case of infection and 61 deaths occur each year. Many of these outbreaks are associated with the consumption of meat and meat products such as ground beef and ground beef patties. Spices are usually added to meat products to improve the quality and shelf life. Our research hypothesis was that manganese (Mn²⁺), as a common element in many spices, could stimulate the production of organic acids and antimicrobial compound by lactic acid bacteria. Therefore, combination of starter culture and spices would enhance the biosafety of these consumable products. Objective of this research was to determine the effectiveness of combinations of bifidobacteria and spices on inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in ground beef. Ground beef (93% lean meat) was inoculated with E. coli O157:H7 (380-94) to make the initial inoculum level of 2.00 log cuf/g. inoculated ground beef was mixed with different spices (garlic, ginger, jalapeno pepper, and commercial spice, served as antioxidant) at the level of 2% (W/V). Bifidobacteria was then added to a final level of 5.00 log cfu/g. Beef samples were held at 37^oC for 48h. Changes in the population of E. coli in meat samples were followed on EMB agar plates. The results showed that ground beef treated with commercial spice had the highest inhibitory effect against E. coli (P<0.05), followed by jalapeno pepper and garlic. Ginger had little effect on the growth of E. coli in ground beef. The synergistic effects of spices and bifidobacteria on E. coli O157:H7 were higher than the effect of any single spice (P<0.05). Knowledge gained from this research project will be valuable in developing new strategies to eliminate E. coli O157:H7 in many meat products and ultimately improve the biosafety of these consumable products.