Research Abstracts

Presented at the 2001 Annual Meeting of the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences in Providence, Rhode Island

Edited by Beth Wuest, Ph.D.
Co-Chair of Colleges, Universities and Research Section

Oral Presentation Session

1. The Teen Consumer: Understanding Interaction Styles and Marketing Attitudes
Christy Crutsinger and Dee Knight, University of North Texas

2. The Design Connection
Diana Cone, Georgia Southern University

3. Student Perceptions of Teaching Evaluations
Sue Couch, Texas Tech University

4. Comparison of Fat Free and Regular Potato Chips: Gastrointestinal Symptoms in Female College Students
Jay Kandiah and E. Wendt, Ball State University

5. Application of Universal and Lighting Design
Kenneth Tremblay, Chia-rung Lin and Li-Lin Candy Yang, Colorado State University

6. The Impact of Perceived Power, Attraction and Attachment Style on the Breakups of Committed Premarital Relationships
Jana L. Pendleton and Maribeth Clarke, Brigham Young University

7. Childhood Financial Influences and Personal Finance Behaviors
Barbara O'Neill and Patricia Brennan, Rutgers University
Jing Xiao and Claudia Kerbel, University of Rhode Island
Barbara Bristow, Cornell University

Research Poster Session

Apparel and Textiles

8. Retailers' Perceptions of Apparel and Home Furnishings Vendors
Lynn Brandon, Dee Knight, and Christy Crutsinger, University of North Texas

9. Impact of Consumption Experiences on Clothing Purchase Attitudes: A Cross-National Study
Jessie H. Chen-Yu, Virginia Tech
Keum-Hee Hong, Silla University

10. Adoption of the Internet for Apparel Shopping by College Students
Cynthia R. Easterling and Dolly Loyd, The University of Southern Mississippi

11. Influence of Lifestyle Orientation on Information Search, Evaluation, and Purchase of Casual Apparel and Home Furnishings Products
Judith C. Forney and Lynn Brandon, University of North Texas

12. Preserving and Indexing Textiles from the Fag El Gamous Cemetery in Egypt to Facilitate Their Comparison with Known Coptic Textiles
Rachel P. Hiatt, Maribeth C. Clarke, CFCS, Marvin C. J. Kunchar, Brigham Young University

13. Furs: Controversy and Conservation
Catherine Amoroso Leslie, The Ohio State University

14. Fashion Groups and Fashion Problem Recognition Style
Cathryn M. Studak and Jane E. Workman, Southern Illinois University

15. Biodegradation Assessment of Cotton, Rayon and Tencel Fabrics
Mary Warnock, Duane Wolf, and Karon Davis, University of Arkansas

16. Ownership and Visibility of Alcohol Promotional Clothing Items
Jane E. Workman, Naomi Arseneau, Chandra Ewell, and Kristen Young, Southern Illinois University

17. Purchase Motivations and Product Satisfaction of Single Women: Do Children Make a Difference
Lynn Brandon and Judith C. Forney, University of North Texas

18. Mature Consumers' Service Needs: Comparing Perceptions of Mature Consumers and Apparel Retailers
Beth Wuest, Southwest Texas State University

Communication

19. A Value-Added Approach to Learning
Diane Cone and Diane Phillips, Georgia Southern University

Education and Technology

20. Empathy Levels of Adolescents Enrolled in the Ohio High School Family and Consumer Sciences Program
Karen L. Alexander, University of Kentucky
Jerelyn B. Schultz, The Ohio State University

21. Characteristics of Family and Consumer Sciences Teachers Related to Attitudes Toward Using Computers as an Instructional Medium
Sheri L. Lokken and Wanda K. Cheek, Mississippi State University
Shirley W. Hastings, University of Tennessee

22. Gender as a Factor in Cognitive Style of Professionals in Family and Consumer Science Fields
Barbara L. Stewart, Robert Fritz, and Marcella Norwood, University of Houston

23. Principal's Perception of Female Teachers Dress on Teaching Effectiveness
Janie O. Kenner, Rachel A. Underwood, and Sandra McClune, Stephen F. Austin State University

Family Economics and Resource Management

24. Why Shop There if You Can Get It Here
Linda Simpson, Jane Wayland, and Barbara Kemmerer, Eastern Illinois University

25. Living, Working, Parenting, and Section 8
Marilyn J. Bruin, University of Minnesota

Housing and Environment

26. Dishwashing Practices and Water Usage
JoAnn Emmel, Julia Beamish, and Kathleen Parrott, Virginia Tech

27. Sociological and Consumer Dimensions of the Midwifery Movement
Kelly Shannon Manley, University of Georgia
Michallene G. McDaniel, State University of West Georgia

28. Socioeconomic Status and Housing Values of Korean Households
Sehwa Yang, Myojung Kim and Jinseon Hur

29. Appliance Disposal by Japanese Consumers
Pat McCallister, Eastern Illinois University

Nutrition, Health, and Food Management

30. Estimated Average Daily Intakes of Dietary Energy and Fat Do Not Differ Between Self-Reported Chronic Dieters and Non-Dieters
Jeannemarie M. Beiseigel and Sharon M. Nickols-Richarson, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

31. Alternative Medicine Practices of Nutrition and Exercise Students
Barbara A. Davis, W. Tim Roberts, and F.A. Bruce Jr., Virginia Tech

32. Who in the US is Consuming Functional Foods?
Jeannette Endres and Sharon Barter, Southern Illinois University

33. Is Food Safety Knowledge Put into Practice by Consumers in Middle Tennessee?
Sandria L. Godwin, Thelma Sanders-Hunter, and Leslie Speller-Henderson, Tennessee State University

34. Prevalence of Food Insecurity and Dietary Practice of Low Income Persons Participating in Food Assistance Program
Nweze Nnakwe, Illinois State University

35. Quality of Life and Nutrition Risk in Elderly Home-Delivered Meal Recipients and a Waiting List Group
Elaine S. Smith, Alice A. Spangler, and Rebecca A. Adams, Ball State University

36. The Use of an Instant Modified Food Starch in Creating a Reduced Sugar Raspberry Jam
Janet C. Stocks, Maribeth C. Clarke, and Carolyn Garrison, Brigham Young University

Family Relations and Human Development

37. Families as Potential Obstacles to End-of-Life Care
Maribeth C. Clarke, CFCS, Renea L. Beckstrand, Laura N. Conover, CFCS, Brigham Young University

38. Adolescents and Conflict with Peers: Relationships between Personality Factors and Conflict Resolution Strategies
Debra Ann DeBates, Iowa State University

39. The Influence of Affluence on Gen-Xer's
Carma Sutherland and Janiel Nelson, Ricks College

1. THE TEEN CONSUMER: INTERACTION STYLES AND MARKETING ATTITUDES
Christy Crutsinger and Dee Knight, University of North Texas

Purpose. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between teens' consumer interaction styles and attitudes toward marketing practices.
Procedures. Data were collected from teens (N=467) during intact classes. Consumer interaction styles were measured using Richin's (1983) 21-item, 5-point Likert scale. The sample was divided into four interaction styles (i.e., non-assertive, assertive, aggressive, resort-to-aggression) based on teens' scores. Gaski and Etzel's (1986) 20-item scale measured teens' attitudes toward marketing practices. Subscales corresponded to the four marketing mix elements: product, pricing, advertising, and retailing.  Participants responded to items on a 5-point Likert scale. One-way ANOVAs determined differences between consumer interaction styles and attitudes toward marketing practices. All tests used a .05 alpha level.
Findings.  ANOVAs revealed that aggressive teens had less positive attitudes toward products  [F=(3, 436)=19.83, p <.001] and more positive attitudes toward pricing [F=(3, 4 14)=10.28, p < .001] than teens in the other groups.  The Scheffe post hoc comparison test revealed that aggressive(M=15.03) teens held more negative attitudes toward product quality than the other groups.  Further post hoc comparisons revealed that aggressive teens (M=14.32) had more positive attitudes toward pricing than those in the other groups.  Additional ANOVA testing revealed a significant difference between assertive teens and attitudes toward retailing [F=(3, 434)=9.77, p <.001] and advertising [F=(3, 411)=3.82, p <.05].  Post hoc comparisons revealed that assertive (M=17.71) teens had more positive attitudes toward retailing than the other groups.   Furthermore, assertive (M=15.05) teens had more positive attitudes toward advertising than teens who resort-to-aggression (M=13.63).
Implications.  Although most teens had positive views toward marketing practices, aggressive teens were more likely to have negative attitudes toward the product component of the marketing mix.  Because aggressive individuals are generally more intimidating in their actions and have more negative perceptions of others, one might assume that their hostility would translate into negative attitudes toward businesses (i.e., products).  However, a surprising finding showed that aggressive teens revealed positive attitudes toward pricing.  This might be explained by the fact that aggressive teens may seek out retail formats that offer the best price.  Assertive teens, in this study, were more likely to have positive attitudes toward retailing and advertising.  Perhaps assertive individuals are more likely to request and receive help from a company when a problem arises.  Therefore, over time, assertive individuals experience more positive interactions with businesses, which would ultimately lead to more positive attitudes.
References.
     Gaski, J. F., and Etzel, M. J.  (1986).  The index of consumer sentiment toward marketing. Journal  of Marketing, 50, 71-81.
     Richins, M. L. (1983).  An analysis of consumer interaction styles in the marketplace. Journal of Consumer Research, 10, 73-82.

2. THE DESIGN CONNECTION
Diana Cone, Georgia Southern University

Purpose.  Today's graduates are expected to enter the new millennium as competent citizens ready to manage the challenges of living and working in a diverse and global society.  The purpose of the exploratory project was to develop an awareness of the influences of cultural diversity in interiors by using visual images as a way of proclaiming specific cultural values and to recognize symbolic associations characterized by cultural customs.
Procedures.  Pre-test questionnaires were administered to 40 students enrolled in a sophomore level Design Appreciation course at a regional university in the southeast to determine their understanding of cultural traditions and customs that influence interior spaces.  The results were used to develop an exploratory project to facilitate an understanding of cultural diversity and an appreciation of the distinctiveness of  individuals and how they contribute to society. Post-test questionnaires were used to evaluate the project and the cultural awareness among the students.
Findings.  Data from the pre-test revealed little knowledge among the participants about cultural preferences and customs for interior furnishings with cultures other than their own.  The exploratory project required that small groups of students (two or three) conduct an in-depth study of a selected cultural group and access information from a variety of sources about the customs and preferences that affect interior spaces (color, space, furniture styles, climate, technology, economy, lifestyle, etc.).  The information gathered was used to write a cultural profile for the group studied and to create a model of an interior space which reflects these preferences.  An oral presentation of the findings were presented by each group to the entire class.  Post-project evaluations indicated a higher level of awareness of cultural diversity among the class.   Specifically, students felt better able to transfer information on cultural diversity to current interior design practices.
Implications.  This project spotlighted the need for multi-cultural education in the curriculum to facilitate an understanding of cultural diversity and an appreciation of the distinctiveness of various groups of people.  Continued efforts are necessary to encourage students to seek a new vision of cultural pluralism that supports cross-cultural understanding while promoting global awareness.

3. STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHING EVALUATIONS
Sue Couch, Texas Tech University

The purpose of the study was to assess student perceptions of teaching and how it is evaluated.  The study was part of a campus-wide self-study on evaluating teaching, conducted at a research university in the southwest and supported by a grant from the W.K. Kellogg Foundation.  The goals of the self-study were to document institutional strengths in evaluating and rewarding teaching and identify areas needing improvement.
The self-study was based on ten standards for evaluating teaching, developed by the Kellogg Foundation's Collective Leadership Project for Change.
Undergraduate and graduate students were surveyed to determine their perceptions of the student role in evaluating teaching.  Students were asked to rate the importance of 23 dimensions of teaching effectiveness (not important=1, very important=5) and utilized a Likert-type scale, strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), to respond to statements related to student evaluation of teaching.  The survey also included open-ended items and provided an opportunity for comments.  The survey was distributed in classes by faculty volunteers in each of the university's eight colleges and schools.  College of Human Sciences majors accounted for about 18% of the responding sample (420 of 2, 353).
Students rated all 23 dimensions of teaching effectiveness as important or very important.  Those rated as most important were Teacher is knowledgeable about subject (4.64), Grading is fair and impartial (4.54), Teacher is well prepared (4.52), and Teacher shows concern and respect for students (4.50).  Although students did not believe that appropriate dimensions of teaching effectiveness had been defined by the institution (3.37) or that the current student course evaluation form allowed an accurate assessment of teaching effectiveness (3.03), they nevertheless indicated that they take teaching evaluations seriously (3.90).  Well over half reported that they spend more than 5 minutes completing the form that consists of three global items.  Most agreed that the results of student evaluations should be published for students to use in selecting courses and instructors.  Students were unconvinced that student evaluations matter in the overall evaluation of faculty (3.22) and unsure whether evaluation of teaching results in improvement (3.62).  These views were reinforced by numerous comments.  When asked how the current student evaluation form should be revised, students suggested that there should be more items and more specific items.  Additional items most frequently suggested related to how the instructor relates to students, whether the instructor communicates effectively, the availability of the instructor outside of class, and the appropriateness and fairness of evaluation/grading.
The results of the study can be used to improve procedures for student evaluation of teaching.  Along with findings from other data sources used in the self-study, the results provide a basis for using evaluation of teaching to improve teaching and to recognize and reward effective teaching more appropriately.  The self-study model can be adapted by other institutions with similar goals.

4. COMPARISON OF FAT FREE AND REGULAR POTATO CHIPS:
GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOMS IN FEMALE COLLEGE STUDENTS
J. Kandiah and E. Wendt, Ball State University

Purpose.  Olestra (Olean), a non-absorbable, calorie-free fat substitute approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 1996 has been used in snack foods such as potato chips, crackers and tortilla chips. Products sold as Olean bear an information label stating that olestra may cause abdominal cramping and loose stools. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms in female college students consuming fat free and regular potato chips.
Procedures.  Seventy-five, 18-21 year-old healthy female college student volunteers from a metropolitan Mid-Western university successfully completed this research. Eighteen-to-twenty-one-year-old females were used because a) this specific age group had never been used for Olestra studies; and b) of media and social pressure, weight issues are often times a bigger problem for young females than males.
After screening and explanation of the study protocol which included identification of abnormal digestive problems all participants were randomly given, monitored and ate a 2.5 ounce bag of either regular or olestra potato chips (had 20.2 g of olestra) within one half hour. Subjects also completed a gastrointestinal distress survey within 48 hours after testing. The following week, the same procedures were repeated, except this time participants were offered 2.5 ounces of  (either regular or olestra) potato chips which they had not eaten the previous week. Throughout the study, subjects were unaware of the type of potato chips they received. Chi-square was used to compare the number of symptoms developed by the subjects after consumption of olestra and regular potato chips.
Results.  Prior to the start of the study, with the exception of 2 subjects (n=73) who did not indicate the frequency of bowel movement (BM), 52 (71.2%) subjects had BM 1-2 times/day, 5 (6.8%) had 1-2 BM/week, and 16 (22%) of the subjects had 3 or more BM/week. After 48 hours of consumption of regular potato chips, 85.3% (n=64) of the subjects had no digestive distress. However, 14.7% (n=11) reported having a total of 17 GI symptoms. Symptoms of the 11 subjects ranged from diarrhea (2.7%), loose stools (6.7%), bloating/gas (6.7%), and stomach ache/abdominal cramping (9.3%). After 48 hours of olestra chip consumption, 90.7% (n=68) reported having no symptoms. However, only 7 (9.3%) subjects experienced a total of 10 GI symptoms. Gastrointestinal symptoms reported by the 7 subjects were loose stools (4.3%), bloating/gas (4.3%), stomach ache/abdominal cramping (4.3%) and diarrhea (1.3%). Although the number of subjects who had GI symptoms was higher (n=11) after consuming regular potato chips this was found not to be statistically significant.
Implications.  These findings suggest that increased occurrence of gastrointestinal symptoms was not prevalent in this population (18-21 years) when they ate olestra potato chips. Future implications include: 1) incorporation of male and female college student and a larger sample size; 2) effectiveness of olestra potato chips as part of an efficient weigh-loss or weight-control regimen; and 3) investigation of college students low-fat or fat-free snacking habits.

5. APPLICATION OF UNIVERSAL AND LIGHTING DESIGN
Kenneth R. Tremblay, Jr., Chia-rung Lin, Li-Lin Candy Yang, and Nancy H. Drennen,
Colorado State University

Purpose.  Two crucial aspects of interior design practice are universal and lighting design. Universal design is a philosophy in which the goal is to optimize the usability of products and environments by acknowledging dynamic human functional needs that change throughout the lifespan. This philosophy goes beyond minimal accessibility standards specified by the Americans with Disabilities Act. The seven principles forming the basis of universal design are equitable use, flexibility in use, simple and intuitive use, perceptible information, tolerance for error, low physical effort, and size and space for approach and use. The design element of lighting conveys what one sees into tangible images and it enriches one€'s senses of built environments. Interior designers are typically involved with lighting design in their projects, often collaborating with other professionals. Lighting design refers to the process of creating a solution for the safety, productivity, and aesthetic quality of spaces. There exist a number of factors that affect lighting design, most importantly being the different functions of spaces. Thus, it is often recommended that interior designers consider lighting in the earliest stage of the design process, and that clients and other professionals be consulted to ensure that lighting systems meet users' needs. The purpose of this paper is to investigate interior designers application of the seven universal design principles in their own design work and to examine the stages of the design process in which interior designers make recommendations about lighting.
Procedures.  In the Fall of 1999 a questionnaire was mailed to all Colorado members of the American Society of Interior Designers. There were 366 interior designers who met this designation. After two postcard follow-ups and a replacement questionnaire follow-up, completed questionnaires were obtained from 163 persons.  After accounting for undelivered questionnaires and sample members who were no longer working in the field, the 163 respondents represented a 51% response rate. As part of the survey, the following question was asked: To what extent do you use the seven universal design principles in your own design work? The seven principles were then listed with five Likert type response categories ranging from never (coded as 1) to always (coded as 5). An additional question was: Generally, in what stage of the design process do you decide on the lighting system?    Respondents were requested to select only one answer from the following stages: programming, schematic design, design development, contract documents, bidding, construction, and post construction. Respondents were also asked: Referring to lighting design, who do you usually work with that affects your lighting considerations?  Respondents were able to circle as many response categories as they desired: lighting designer, lighting engineer, architect, facility manager, client, and other.
Findings.  Results from the survey revealed that a majority of respondents used four of the principles of universal design in their own design work. When the frequently and always responses are added, the following order appears: size and space for approach and use (68.6%), flexibility in use (58.8%), simple and intuitive use (57.4%), and low physical effort (51.1%). The three principles of equitable use (49.7%), perceptible information (46.4%), and tolerance for error (42.5%) were not used by a majority of respondents. Mean scores ranged from a high of 3.88 to a low of 3.23, while standard deviations ranged from 1.09 to .99. Responses to the lighting questions showed that 54.1% of respondents made lighting decisions in the design development stage, followed in order by 26.1% in the schematic design and 12.7% in the programming stages. Stages not frequently mentioned were contract documents (2.5%), construction (2.5%), and bidding (1.9%). Although many lighting experts recommend that lighting systems may be altered in the post construction stage, none of the respondents made their lighting recommendations during this stage. Results also revealed that 72.4% of respondents worked with clients, followed by architects (44.2%) and lighting designers (34.5%). Other responses were lighting engineers (24.4%), facility managers (12.8%), and others (15.4%). A mean score of 1.97 indicated that respondents collaborated with approximately two persons in making lighting design decisions.
Implications.   Universal and lighting design have become increasingly important to interior designers, and will become even more so as an aging American population requires lighting and space arrangement modifications. According to the results of a statewide survey of ASID members, a majority of interior designers were using the universal design principles in their own design work. Most lighting decisions were made in the early-middle design stages, with few made after the design development stage. Respondents also typically worked with two others in reaching lighting decisions, primarily the client and either architects or lighting designers. Based on survey results, it appears that interior designers should further their application of universal design and broaden their use of other professionals while considering lighting in the earliest stage of the design process.

6. THE IMPACT OF PERCEIVED POWER, ATTRACTION, AND ATTACHMENT STYLE ON
THE BREAKUPS OF COMMITTED PREMARITAL RELATIONSHIPS
Jana L. Pendleton, CFCS, Maribeth C. Clarke, CFCS, Brigham Young University

The breakup of a committed premarital relationship can be as detrimental for those involved as an actual divorce would be.  Understanding the nature of committed premarital relationships may help family professionals to predict and understand the variables that contribute to unsuccessful marriages.  Power and Attraction (e.g. social rewards) have been shown to significantly impact interpersonal relationships.  For example, if one person is considered to be more attractive than the other, she or he is likely to retain more power in their relationship (Peplau, 1984).  Individuals gain a sense of attachment to their primary caregiver as a young child, and the nature of that relationship will influence the individual's personal relationships in the future (Hazen and Shaver, 1987). The purpose of the research study was to determine the role that perceived power, attraction, and attachment style may have played within the committed relationship's dissolution.
 A longitudinal study of the RELATE participants has shown that some of these couples have since broken up.  A questionnaire was sent to these individuals (n=80, 40 couples) which explored questions concerning the impact of attachment theory, perceived power, and attraction on the breakup of these committed relationships.  Multiple regression analysis was used to determine how much power, attraction, and attachment style could explain the amount and frequency of problems within these broken relationships.
Individuals with an avoidant attachment style retain more power within interpersonal relationships.  They are less invested and therefore initiate the breakup of a committed relationship.  Individuals with a preoccupied attachment style are more dependent on their partner and the relationship and thus willing to forfeit their power.
Understanding the nature of premarital breakups and the factors that will contribute to them will help in meeting the needs of individuals who find them in this particular situation.  The distribution of power and attraction will most likely influence even the most intimate relationships as well as individuals' lives (Felmlee, 1994).  The implications of attachment theory being able to explain breakups of committed premarital relationships is exciting in that it is an area that could be examined prior to long-term commitment.  It is comforting for those who have already been through a breakup of a committed relationship so that they may feel less at fault and be able to see the same signs in future relationships.  Also, once becoming aware of one's weaknesses and working to overcome them, it could help precipitate some self-defeating behaviors.
     Feeney, J. A. (1999).  Adult romantic attachment and couple relationships.  In J. Cassidy and P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment:Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 355-377).  New York: Guilford Press.
     Hazen, C., and Shaver, P. R. (1987).  Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524.
     Peplau, A. (1984).  Power in dating relationships.  In J. Freeman (Ed.), Women:A feminist perspective (pp. 121-137). Palo Alto: Mayfield.

7. CHILDHOOD FINANCIAL INFLUENCES AND PERSONAL FINANCE BEHAVIORS
Barbara O'Neill and Patricia Q. Brennan, Rutgers University; Jing Xiao and Claudia Kerbel,
University of Rhode Island; Barbara Bristow, Cornell University

Purpose.  This study investigated the effect of childhood financial influences upon personal finance behaviors.  A sample of 520 MONEY 2000" program participants was surveyed.  Over three-quarters (76.6%) were female, 55% were married, and 83.5% were white.   Over half of the sample earned more than $45,000 (54.8%) and had a four-year college education or higher (53.7%). Respondents were asked the following open-ended question: During your growing up years, who or what had the greatest influence on your personal financial knowledge and behavior? They were also asked to indicate the extent to which they were encouraged to develop a savings habit during their growing up years and actions or planned action, if any, with respect to 13 specific financial behaviors.
Findings.  Respondents reported the greatest influence on their finances as follows: parents or guardians (46.9%), mother (10.4%), school saving/banking program (9%), employment-related (e.g., a job) responses (7.7%), other factors such as life experiences, financial media, friends, and living through the depression (7.5%), father (7.3%), no response (6.2%), no one (5.6%), other relatives and family members (5.4%), and teachers (1.9%).  The total percentage exceeds 100% due to multiple responses.  Respondents perceived the extent of encouragement to save during their childhood as: all of the time (20.3%), most of the time (23%), occasionally (25.9%), almost never (18.6%), and not at all (12.2%).
Chi-square tests were conducted with childhood influence variables against behavior change variables. Childhood influence variables had little association with later behavior changes at the 5% level of significance.  No effect of employment or parents on any of the behavior change variables was found.  One significant relationship was found for school saving and banking programs.  Respondents who reported that school programs had the greatest influence on their personal financial knowledge and behavior were more likely to report behavior changes in setting up and using a spending plan (c^²=6.353, df=2, p=.042).  However, respondents who reported teachers as the greatest influence were less likely to report paying off consumer debts (c^²=18.448, df=2, p=.001). Other relatives (c^²=7.177, df=2, p=.028) or other factors were cited as the greatest influence by respondents who were more likely to report keeping good financial records, but less likely to change their behaviors in setting financial goals (c^²=10.702, df=2, p=.005), increasing income (c^²=7.833, df=2, p=.020), talking with family members about financial goals (c^²=11.132, df=2, p=.004), and reducing spending on household expenses (c^²=18.259, df=2, p=.001). Respondents who reported nobody as their greatest influence or gave no response were less likely to report putting some money into investments (c^²=10.894, df=2, p=.004), keeping good financial records (c^²=6.232, df=2, p=.044), reducing spending on household expenses (c^²=6.227, df=2, p=.044), and making much progress in debt reduction (c^²=10.465, df=3, p=.015).
Chi-square analysis was also done for the question about the extent to which respondents perceived that they were encouraged to develop a savings habit and self-reported financial behavior variables.  Results indicated that a savings habit developed in childhood had some association with several behavioral variables.  Respondents who checked all of the time or most of the time regarding encouragement to save were more likely to report paying off consumer debt (c²=16.7050, df=8, p=.033).  These results are borne out by frequencies as well: 58.7% of respondents who checked all the time and 47.8% of those who checked most of the time reported that they that they have no problem in paying off consumer debts, compared to 36.9%, 36.3%, and 37.7% for those who checked occasionally, almost never, and ot at all, respectively.  The same patterns were also found for the self-reported behaviors save some money from each paycheck on a regular basis (c^²=28.1677, df=8, p=.0004), put some money into investments (c^²=16.292, df=8, p=.0384), and build and maintain an emergency fund (c²=58.235, df=8, p=.0001).
Implications.  This study found that parents are perceived to be the primary influence on personal finance knowledge and behavior.  Information should, therefore, be provided to parents to assist them as teachers and role models.  This study also found a positive effect of school saving and banking programs on subsequent use of spending plans. Interestingly, respondents who reported no specific influence on their financial behavior were less likely to report specific recommended behaviors.  In other words, having an influence of any kind (e.g., parent, school, job) on financial knowledge and behavior appears to produce beneficial results.  This finding suggests a multifaceted approach to financial literacy.  Another interesting finding is that respondents who perceived themselves as being encouraged to develop a savings habit were clearly more likely to report saving regularly, investing, building an emergency fund, and reducing debt.  This, again, provides a strong argument for early encouragement of savings.  Like many positive lifestyle habits, practice and an early start can result in significant benefits over time.

8. RETAILERS' PERCEPTIONS OF APPAREL AND HOME FURNISHINGS VENDORS
Lynn Brandon, Dee Knight, and Christy Crutsinger, University of North Texas

Purpose.  The purpose of this study was to examine the satisfaction levels of retailers regarding the products, policies and service they receive from vendors.
Procedures.  A self-administered questionnaire was mailed to apparel (n=500) and home furnishings (n=500) retailers randomly selected from individuals attending a major southwest market.  Retailer's satisfaction with vendors' services was measured using a 16-item modified version of Ruekert and Churchill's (1984) scale.  Participants indicated their levels of satisfaction on a 5-point Likert type scale (1=not satisfied; 5=very satisfied).  A modified version of Narver and Slater's (1990) scale was used to measure retailers' customer orientation.  Retailers indicated the extent to which their stores engage in customer-oriented activities (e.g., customer satisfaction surveys) on a 5-point Likert type scale (1=never; 5=always).  One-way ANOVAs determined differences between retailers' satisfaction, customer orientation, and demographic variables.
Findings.   Apparel retailers (N=162) constituted 53.1% of the sample and 46.9% were home furnishings retailers.  The majority of participants were owners (80.5%) of independent stores (90.3%).  Those who attended market three or more times per year (63.3%) were identified as frequent buyers.  Infrequent buyers (33.5%) were those attending market fewer than three times per year.  Parallel tests on the 16 items revealed four dimensions (financial outcomes, social interaction, order fulfillment, promotional support) similar to Ruekert and Churchill's (1984) findings. Retailers (n=77) scoring below the mean were identified as having low customer orientation (M=1.79), and retailers (n=61) scoring above the mean were identified as having moderate customer orientation (M=2.92).   Retailers who frequently attended markets were less satisfied with promotional support [F=(1,141)=4.467, p<.05] and financial outcomes [F=(1,149)=7.573, p<.05] than those who attended markets infrequently.   Retailers with moderate customer orientation were less satisfied with social interaction [F=1, 132)=F=3.639, p<.05], promotional support [F=(1,126)=14.533, p<.05] and financial outcomes [F=(1,32)=5.992, p<.05]  than were retailers with low customer orientation.
Implications.  Retailers were moderately satisfied with the four dimensions of vendor services. However, retailers who were moderately customer oriented and attended market frequently were less satisfied with promotional support and financial outcomes than those with low customer orientation and infrequent market attendance.  Vendors may satisfy more demanding retailers with a variety of improvements.  Initiating or increasing awareness of programs including cooperative advertising and off-price promotions may improve retailers' satisfaction.  In addition, such efforts may result in more profitable and satisfactory channel member relationships.
References.
     Narver, J. C., and Slater, S. F.  (1990).  The effect of market orientation on business profitability. Journal of Marketing, 54, 20-35.
     Ruekert, R. W., and Churchill, G. A. (1984). Reliability and validity of alternative measures of channel member satisfaction. Journal of Marketing Research, 21(May), pp. 226-33.

9. IMPACT OF CONSUMPTION EXPERIENCES ON CLOTHING PURCHASE ATTITUDES:
A CROSS-NATIONAL STUDY
Jessie H. Chen-Yu and Keum-Hee Hong, Virginia Tech and Silla University

The purpose of the study was to investigate the impact of consumption experiences on consumers€' attitudes toward clothing purchase. The similarities and differences between consumers in the United States (US) and South Korea (SK) were examined. Consumers' attitudes toward a brand and store are often influenced by their consumption experience with the product. Consumers who enjoy the use of the product are likely to develop favorable attitudes toward the brand and store. Attitudes play a major role in shaping consumer behavior. An understanding of how consumption experiences influence consumers' clothing purchase attitudes can assist marketers to identify factors that enhance consumers' favorable attitudes.
Two hundred and forty participants, 120 in the US and 120 in SK, were recruited. Two scenarios were used to simulate consumers' consumption experiences. Scenario 1 described a condition in which consumers purchased a low-priced garment. A warning that possible shrinkage and pilling problems may occur was given on the label of the product. After the garment had been worn and washed five times, the garment showed noticeable shrinkage and pilling. Scenario 2 described a condition in which consumers purchased a high-priced garment. A guarantee of good after-wash performance was given on the label. After the garment had been worn and washed five times, the appearance of the garment showed no change. A questionnaire was developed to measure participants€' clothing purchase attitudes before and after their experience in the scenario.
The factor analysis revealed four factors of clothing purchase attitudes. They were labeled as quality consciousness, information consciousness, economic consciousness and product interest/ involvement. After experiencing the condition in Scenario, the paired t-tests showed that US participants' product interest/involvement had decreased. SK participants did not change their product interest/involvement; instead, their information consciousness had increased. These results suggest that for the US market, offering a low price without good product performance would not benefit the company. Poor product performance would lead to negative attitudes toward the brand and/or the store. When selling low-price, moderate quality products in SK, marketers should provide truthful product performance information. This practice would not create negative influence on the business. On the contrary, accurate information may increase consumers' confidence in the company.
oth US and SK participants' quality consciousness had increased after they experienced the condition of Scenario 2. In future purchases, participants would buy more clothing of high quality and use price as a cue to predict the performance of the product. In addition to quality consciousness, SK participants' information consciousness also had increased. These results suggest that providing information on labels and hangtags was important for the SK market. This was an effective way to promote products because this information is provided at the moment when consumers were making their final purchase decision. Results also showed that after experiencing this scenario, US participants' product interest/involvement had increased. This result suggests that providing a higher-priced product with good performance may be a way to increase US consumers' brand/store involvement and loyalty.

10. ADOPTION OF THE INTERNET FOR APPAREL SHOPPING BY COLLEGE STUDENTS
Cynthia R. Easterling and Dolly Loyd, The University of Southern Mississippi

Retailers have shown an increasing interest in catering to the needs, wants, and desires of young adult consumers who have become a powerful social and economic force, which  also makes them a critically important market segment for consumer products and services.  Young adults represent a large percentage of the American population and have been identified as having a strong buying power.  Because America's youth seem comfortable with technology, a number of retailers have targeted young consumers via websites for apparel shopping.
Although traditional college-age students (approximately 18 to 25 years of age) often use the Internet as a classroom tool, little is known about the apparel shopping habits with the Internet by this consumer group.  The purpose of the study was to quantify adoption of the Internet by college students for apparel shopping.
The study involved a self-administered questionnaire designed to secure information about the shopping habits of traditional college-age students for apparel goods on the Internet.  The study sample consisted of 192 college students at a regional university in the Southeastern United States.  Participation was voluntary and took place during regular class times in a random selection of general elective classes in December, 2000.  Frequency and percentage distributions were used to analyze the basic information and chi-square analysis was computed.
Most of the students held part-time jobs and approximately one-half of the sample had over $100 of discretionary income each month.  The participants in the study were female (n=134) and males (n=58) ranging in age from 18 to 25.  The students represented all college classifications and over 10 different major areas of study. No matter where the purchases were made, virtually all of the students indicated that they select and buy their own apparel.  While most of the students (72%) had used the Internet to observe fashion trends and merchandise, only 56 percent of the students actually purchased goods online.  Most of the students who purchased apparel online completed the transactions from home based computers and used personal credit cards for the purchases.  Almost all of the purchases were made from websites of well-known retail stores and  apparel manufacturers, and the most popular selections included clothing, shoes, and cosmetics.  The lack of credit card security and the inability to see the merchandise were frequently listed by the participants as major problems associated with online shopping.
A significant relationship was found between discretionary income groups:  Students with more discretionary income were more likely to purchase online apparel goods.  No differences were found between Internet purchasing habits and such factors as gender, classification and age.
Understanding the spending habits and purchasing practices of young consumers provides marketers with information that can be used to sell services and products.  By understanding the needs of young consumers, family and consumer science educators are better positioned to prepare fashion merchandising students for successful retailing careers.  Educators should include Internet assignments in their courses to provide a variety of opportunities for students.

11. INFLUENCE OF LIFESTYLE ORIENTATION ON INFORMATION SEARCH,
EVALUATION AND PURCHASE OF CASUAL APPAREL AND HOME FURNISHINGS PRODUCTS
Judith C. Forney and Lynn Brandon, University of North Texas

This study investigated female consumers' information search, evaluation and purchase of casual apparel and home furnishings by their casual or formal lifestyles.  The trend of casual expression in apparel and the home suggested the study's situational context.
Female consumers (N=196) in a southwest state responded to a self-administered questionnaire.  A two-column format (casual apparel/home furnishings) assessed respondent's frequency of use during the past year by a 7-point Likert-type scale (range: 7=high to 1=low) for 11 information sources and 14 purchase sources, and importance (range: 7=high to 1=low) for 23 evaluative criteria. Casual/formal lifestyles were measured by a 7-point semantic differential (1=casual, 7=formal) for six descriptors of apparel and the home.  A factor analysis revealed lifestyle dimensions for apparel and home with reliabilities over .88.  Lifestyle was calculated as average summed scores for both apparel and home; scores between 1 and 3.5 were casual and scores between 3.6 and 7 were formal.  Analyses included descriptive statistics and ANOVAs.
Retail store displays, magazines, and newspapers had the highest overall mean scores, regardless of product category or lifestyle.  Women with formal lifestyles had significantly higher frequency of use of newspapers and retail displays when purchasing casual apparel and home furnishings.
Evaluative criteria including color, style, price, comfort, durability, fit, fabric quality, construction quality, product quality, coordination, appropriateness of purpose, and beauty all received very high importance ratings.  Women with formal lifestyles gave significantly higher ratings to store image, fabric quality, prestigious image of manufacturer, hangtag information, and construction detail for apparel.  They also gave higher ratings for brand name labels, store image, prestigious image of manufacturer, hangtag information, beauty, and private labels for home furnishings.
Department stores and discount department stores had the highest frequency of use, regardless of lifestyle or product.  Women with a formal lifestyle shopped more at department stores for casual apparel, and at small independent specialty, department, mass merchandiser, and large chain stores for casual home furnishings.
In this study, women exhibited different decision-making processes based on their lifestyle.  Women with formal lifestyles had a higher frequency of use for several information and purchase sources, and they placed higher importance on evaluative criteria when purchasing in two casual product categories.  Identifying lifestyle preferences may be a useful and important component when assisting consumers with product decisions.  Also, by understanding the impact of lifestyle on consumer decisions, retailers can better meet consumer needs.  Retailers need to offer products that have the desired attributes and use the market sources that reflect consumer purchase decisions.

12. PRESERVING AND INDEXING TEXTILES FROM THE FAG EL GAMOUS CEMETERY IN
FAYUM, EGYPT, TO FACILITATE THEIR COMPARISON WITH KNOWN COPTIC TEXTILES
Rachel P. Hiatt, Maribeth C. Clarke, CFCS, Marvin C. J. Kuchar, Mary H. Farahnakian, Brigham Young University

Ongoing analysis of the textiles excavated from the Fag el Gamous Cemetery in Egypt has led researchers to investigate the culture of the people buried there. The purposes of this specific study are to (1) establish a means to categorize, order and preserve the textiles retrieved from Fag el Gamous, and (2) determine a possible relationship between the Fag el Gamous textiles and textiles from known Coptic cultures.
This research project was carried out in four phases: first, becoming familiar with the Fag el Gamous textile collection and known Coptic textile collections by studying samples from each, using museum catalogs for the Coptic collections; second, exploring, acquiring and setting up the necessary technology for image collection, image management, data management, and image and data retrieval; third, scanning the Fag el Gamous textiles and creating an image database for further textile study and preservation of the ancient textiles; and fourth, comparing the Fag el Gamous textile collection by the Sibley (1981) instrument and with known Coptic textile collections to determine how the Fag el Gamous textiles differ from Coptic textiles.
The computer technology was successfully implemented. The high-resolution scanned images allow researchers to study the Fag el Gamous textiles without handling them. A searchable database containing a keyword index, text and images of all the 1998 excavated textiles was created using ImageFinder software.
The 1998 Fag el Gamous textiles did not contain the Coptic attributes listed in the 1981 Sibley instrument. The comparison of Fag el Gamous and museum Coptic textiles led to the conclusion that although there are significant stylistic differences, the two groups contain some similar structural elements. The structural elements, such as fiber types and weave structures, indicate that the same resources were available to make Fag el Gamous and Coptic textiles. Stylistically, the Coptic designs are more elaborate, use more colors, and include typical Coptic motif. The Fag el Gamous designs are smaller, have fewer colors, and meticulous workmanship. There does appear to be some relationship between the Fag el Gamous textiles and textiles from known Coptic collections, even though the 1998 Fag el Gamous textiles are not Coptic.
     Sibley, L.R. (1981). Coptic textiles at the Nelson Gallery of Art, Kansas City: A stylistic and structural approach. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri"Columbia, 1981). Dissertation Abstracts International, 42/09-B, 3645.

13. FURS: CONTROVERSY AND CONSERVATION
Catherine Amoroso Leslie, The Ohio State University

Purpose.  Fur has been used for clothing since prehistoric times and is an important part of costume history.  Curators of historic costume collections have special challenges with furs such as cold storage and infestation (Serafino, 1988).  Furs also present another challenge "they are in the middle of a social debate. Although anti-fur activism took hold in the early 1960s, activists became more visible and confrontational in the late 1980s.  These actions caused some businesses to change their practices.  Spiegel dropped fur from its catalogs and Wheel of Fortune ceased giving fur coats as prizes (Lynden, 1989).  Activism also affected consumer attitudes.  Vryza and Hines (1994) found that members of anti-fur organizations considered furs to be less fashionable than nonmembers.  Moreover, fur owners thought the use of fur in apparel was more moral than those who did not own garments made of fur.  If personal attitudes influenced views of furs, could they influence how furs were being stored and exhibited in collections?  The research purpose was to examine the types and kinds of furs in historic costume collections, how they were stored and exhibited, and concerns about the public's response to fur from the curators' perspective.  Exploring fur in collections can offer insights to how museums face issues of special storage and public sentiment.
Procedures.  The sample was individuals who included the word, curator in their listing in The Costume Society of America 2000 Membership Directory.  Themes from four open-ended interviews with selected curators were used to produce a multiple choice and open-ended questionnaire.  The questionnaire was distributed to 65 curators by email and fax; 31 instruments were completed for a response rate of 48 percent.
Findings and Implications.  Ninety-two percent of the collections in the sample had fur garments and only four percent had cold storage.  Fifty-five percent of the curators had exhibited fur garments of some kind and only one reported an incident in which a visitor had an overt negative reaction; however, 52% expressed concerns about including fur in future exhibitions.  Most curators stated that the current political climate did not affect the handling of fur garments in their collections, but responses to exhibition plans and concerns expressed indicate some consideration to these issues.  There is sufficient literature to indicate that fur garments stored above 45 degrees will deteriorate.  The virtual absence of cold storage in this sample indicates there will be a decline in extant fur garments in the future.  Furthermore, withholding furs from public view may be contrary to the mission of museums.  Although more research is required to delve into these issues, this study can offer some insights.  In dealing with fur curators have the challenges of adequate storage and public sentiment.  As clothing fashions come and go, so do currently expressed opinions.  When the climate of fur activism fades away, will there be any furs left in our collections?
References.
     Lynden, P. (1989, November). The fur dilemma. Connoisseur, 219 (934), 112-120.
     Serafino, G. (1988, Fall). Fur storage at the Provincial Museum of Alberta. Textile Conservation Newsletter (Canada), 15, 10-11.
     Vryza, M., and Hines, J. D. (1994).  The use of fur for apparel:  An attitudinal study. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences. 86 (3), 45-50.

14. FASHION GROUPS AND FASHION PROBLEM RECOGNITION STYLE
Cathryn M. Studak and Jane E. Workman, Southern Illinois University

Purpose .  The consumer decision-making process has five distinct segments:  problem recognition, information search, alternative evaluation, purchase decision, and post-purchase evaluation.  The purpose of this study is to focus on the first segment, problem recognition, to examine if differences exist among four consumer groups: fashion opinion leaders, fashion innovators, innovative communicators, and fashion followers. Consistently, fashion change agents-fashion innovators, fashion opinion leaders, and innovative communicators-have been found to make purchasing decisions differently from fashion followers. The way a consumer recognizes a problem and becomes motivated to solve the problem will influence the remainder of the decision-making process.  Problem recognition reflects a difference between the consumer's ideal state and actual state: a discrepancy exists between what consumers want a situation to be like and what a situation is really like (Belch and Belch, 1993).  An actual state reflects a utilitarian or need-based approach whereas an ideal state reflects a psychological or want-based approach to product selection.
Procedures.  University students (n=113; 49 males; 64 females) completed Hirschman and Adcock's (1987) Measure of Fashion Innovativeness and Opinion Leadership, Bruner's (1987) Fashion Problem Recognition Style scale (high scores indicate an actual state; low scores indicate an ideal state), and demographic information.  Members of the four fashion groups were determined using Hirschman and Adcock's procedure.  Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and ANOVA.
Findings.  ANOVA with fashion group as the independent variable and scores on the Fashion Problem Recognition Scale as the dependent variable revealed main effects for fashion group, F (4,105)=14.62 and sex, F (1,105)=21.25, p<.01.  Fashion followers scored higher on the Scale than innovators, opinion leaders or innovative communicators.  Males scored higher on the scale than females.
Implications.  Fashion followers, regardless of gender, and males, regardless of fashion group, reflected a utilitarian approach to problem recognition.  Collectively, the fashion change agents reflected a psychological approach to problem recognition.  The basic premise behind problem recognition style, actual vs. ideal, was validated.
References.
     Belch, George E., and Belch, Michael A.  (1993). Introduction to advertising and promotion: An integrated marketing communications perspective (2nd ed.).  Irwin: Homewood, IL.
     Bruner, G.C. (1987). Problem recognition styles: Conceptualization and scale development. Journal of Midwest Marketing, 2(1), 78-86.
     Hirschman, E., and Adcock, W. (1987). An examination of innovative communicators, opinion leaders, and innovators for men's fashion apparel.
     In H. Keith Hunt (ed.), Advances in consumer research (pp.303-314). Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research.

15. BIODEGRADATION ASSESSMENT OF COTTON, RAYON AND TENCEL FABRICS
Mary Warnock, Duane Wolf and Karon Davis, University of Arkansas

Purpose.  The purpose of the project was to conduct a field study to determine the biodegradation rates of cotton, rayon and Tencel fabrics buried in an aerobic soil.  The influence of fabric decomposition on tensile strength, flex abrasion, and tearing strength was evaluated.
Procedure.   Cotton, rayon and Tencel fabrics were cut into 25x25-cm units and placed in tulle having 1x2-mm mesh openings.  The enclosed fabric samples were buried in a Captina silt loam soil.  The herbicide Roundup was used to eliminate vegetation in the plot.  Fabric specimens were removed from the soil following 14, 28, 42, 77 and 112 days of burial.  Fabric decomposition was reported as the mean quantity of dry, ash-free fabric remaining over time.  The first order kinetics model was used to describe fabric biodegradation.  Tensile strength, tearing strength and flex abrasion tests were performed following each burial period.  ANOVA analyses followed by Fisher€'s LSD test were used for statistical purposes.
Findings.  The amount of fabric remaining over time demonstrated rapid biodegradation of cotton and rayon with Tencel being more resistant to decomposition.  With high soil temperatures of approximately 30 C and adequate soil moisture during the initial 55 days of the field study, rapid cellulose biodegradation would be expected.
Plots of the natural logarithm of fabric remaining versus time showed that fabric biodegradation could be described by first-order kinetics.  The first-order rate constants (k) were significantly different and followed the decreasing order of rayon>cotton>Tencel.  The calculated half-life values were 8, 17 and 87 days for rayon, cotton and Tencel, respectively.  The ease of biodegradation was inversely related to the amount of crystalline cellulose in the fabric.  As the quantity of amorphous cellulose in the fabric increased and the length of the polymer chains decreased, availability of the cellulose substrate for microbial use increased which resulted in more rapid biodegradation of the fabric.
th regard to warp and filling yarn directions, all fabric types decreased in tensile strength, tearing strength, and resistance to flex abrasion throughout the study.  Rayon and cotton specimens lost>95% of their tensile strength capacity following 14 days of burial and were completely biodegraded by the end of 28 days.  The Tencel specimens also decreased in tensile strength with>60% strength loss occurring after 14 days of burial.  Overall, rayon exhibited the least resistance to flex abrasion while Tencel showed the greatest resistance.  With respect to tearing strength, all test specimens, irrespective of fabric type, continued to lose>50% of their strength capacity with each test period.  At the end of 42 days, only the Tencel specimens remained for analyses.
Implications.   Soil burial is an effective method to determine biodegradation properties of textiles.  A real life situation was created by this field study whereby biodegradable predictions could be assessed.  This basic biodegradability information should encourage textile manufacturers to produce environmental friendly goods and support waste management policy-makers.

16. OWNERSHIP AND VISIBILITY OF ALCOHOL PROMOTIONAL CLOTHING ITEMS
Jane E. Workman, Naomi Arseneau, Chandra Ewell, Kristen Young, Southern Illinois University

Purpose. The purpose of this study was to examine ownership and visibility of alcohol promotional clothing items (APCIs) and the association between APCI ownership and alcohol use. Alcohol use is a major public health problem with consequences that include risky behavior, physical injuries, and even death. Exposure to alcohol advertising is positively correlated with adolescents' alcohol use (Kohn and Smart, 1987). Promotional tactics of alcohol companies such as giving away t-shirts advertising alcohol often target adolescent consumers which raises a question: Is ownership of alcohol promotional clothing items related to alcohol use?
Procedures. Participants were university students (120 males; 106 females) who completed a questionnaire about demographics, alcohol use, ownership and visibility of alcohol promotional clothing items. Items from The American Drug and Alcohol Survey (RMBSI, 1994) and Sargent et al.'s (1997) survey of cigarette promotional items were adapted for use in this study.
Findings. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 51 (m=21.71); 53.3% were under 21; 219 (96.5%) had tried drinking alcohol. Nearly 40% of participants owned an APCI and 80% reported their friends owned APCIs. APCI ownership did not vary by sex or age group (under 21 v. 21 and older). APCIs included t-shirts, hats, jackets, shorts, and sweatshirts with t-shirts and hats most common items. There were 40 different alcohol brand names on the APCIs with Budweiser the most common. Only 3.1% of participants reported wearing an APCI the day of the survey, but 52.4% reported seeing an APCI on campus that day. Chi square tests comparing alcohol use of students who owned APCIs with those who did not revealed significant differences (p<.000): those who owned APCIs were more likely to respond "more than 100" about how many drinks they had in their whole life; more likely to respond "yes" to whether they would drink alcohol in the next two months; to drink at least once a week; and to indicate they would drink again.
Implications. Alcohol promotional clothing items were prevalent and highly visible in the social environment of these university students with 17 students seeing an APCI for each one who wore an APCI. A relationship between ownership of APCIs and drinking was evidenced by extent of alcohol use over a participants' lifetime, likelihood of drinking in the next two months, likelihood of drinking once a week, and intent to drink in the future. Students send a powerful pro-drinking message to their peers by wearing APCIs. Persistent exposure to this message leaves students vulnerable to adopting behavior detrimental to their physical and emotional health.
References.
     Kohn, P., and Smart, R.  (1987).  Wine, women, suspiciousness and advertising. Journal of Studies of Alcohol, 48(2), 161-166.
     RMBSI, Inc. (1994). American Drug and Alcohol Survey. Fort Collins, CO: RMBSI, Inc.
     Sargent, J., Dalton, M., Beach, M., Bernhardt, A., Pullin, D., and Stevens, M. (1997, December). Cigarette promotional items in public schools. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 151, 1189-1196.
     This research was supported by a Southern Illinois University Undergraduate Research Award.

17. PURCHASE MOTIVATIONS AND PRODUCE SATISFACTION OF SINGLE WOMEN:
DO CHILDREN MAKE A DIFFERENCE?
Lynn Brandon and Judith C. Forney , University of North Texas

Consumer purchase decisions are often influenced by demographic characteristics, lifestyle, and product experience.  Of interest to family and consumer scientists is the influence of having children on purchase motivations and product satisfaction.   This study examined motivations and satisfaction with casual apparel and home furnishings by the incidence of having children.
A sample (N=198) of female consumers residing in a southwest state completed self-administered mailed questionnaires.  Only single women with (n=77) and without children (n=61) were included in the analysis.  Most women had professional occupations (88.4%), were Anglo (62.8%) or Hispanics (29.2%), were between the ages of 31 and 50 (69.5%), and had household incomes over $50,000 (71.2%).  Chi-square analyses found no significant differences between groups on these demographic characteristics.
A two-column format (casual apparel/home furnishings) assessed respondent's agreement using a 7-point Likert-type scale (range: 7=high to 1=low).  Responses to "When I shop with an intent to purchase, it is because of a measured seven motivational attributes: item do not have, replace item no longer serviceable, updating, personal fulfillment, and a change in income, physical condition, and lifestyle.  Responses to "After I make a purchase, I generally measured eight satisfaction attributes:  satisfaction with purchase, display or show item, find it goes well with other items, complain to retailer about damage, complain to retailer about performance, complain to others, return item, and ask retailer for alterations/modifications.  Independent principle components factor analyses with varimax rotation resulted in two motivational factors:  experiential (5 items) and product-oriented (2 items), and the same two satisfaction factors:  complaining/retribution (5 items) and fulfillment (3 items) for both product categories.  Reliabilities ranged from .54 to .91.  All items loaded at .50 or above.  Total scale values were determined for each motivational and satisfaction factor.
Motivational mean scores showed respondents rated product-oriented motivations highest for both casual apparel and home furnishings, regardless of children.  Within the experiential motivation factor, all respondents rated the need to update (wardrobe, furnishings) highest.  Satisfaction mean scores revealed very low agreement with all items included in the complaining/restitution factor for all respondents in both product categories.  ANOVAs revealed no significant differences between groups on any motivational factor or satisfaction factor for either product category.
Although children can impact family decisions regarding consumer purchases, for this sample and for the product categories studied, having children did not seem to make a difference.  These findings were unexpected, especially since the sample was single women.  This sample was fairly affluent with professional careers and incomes above the national average; these characteristics may have influenced the findings.  Further study with a larger sample and a comparison with married women are warranted.

18. MATURE CONSUMERS' SERVICE NEEDS:
COMPARING PERCEPTIONS OF MATURE CONSUMERS AND APPAREL RETAILERS
Beth Wuest, Southwest Texas State University

Problem.  Quality customer service has been associated with customer satisfaction which in turn, has been related to customer loyalty and repeat patronage.  Consequently, retailers, including apparel retailers, are looking for means of strengthening their service strategies in order to more effectively meet the needs of their customers.  However, to develop an effective customer service strategy, a common understanding of the importance of customer services between the consumer and retailer is crucial.
Purpose.  The focus of this study was to compare mature consumers' perceptions of the importance of various consumer services when purchasing apparel products with those of the apparel retailers' perceptions.  More specifically, this study was intended to examine services considered most and least important to mature consumers and apparel retailers and to identify the similarities and differences in the perceptions of the two groups.
Procedures.  A descriptive and comparative survey design was used in this study.  A self-administered questionnaire was developed and pretested.  Mature apparel consumers' and apparel retailers' perceptions of customer services were measured with a 23-item, modified version of Lumpkin, Greenberg and Goldstucker's (1985) Likert scale.  A total of 100 questionnaires were returned from the mature consumer sample and deemed usable out of 456 accurate addresses, yielding a response rate of 21.91%.   A total of 99 were returned from the apparel retailers sample and deemed usable out of 427 accurate addresses, yielding a response rate of 24.2%.  The data collected was analyzed using descriptive and comparative statistical measures.
Findings.  The scale was determined to be reliable for measuring mature consumers' and apparel retailers' perceptions of the importance of customer services with an reliability alpha of 0.83.  Of the 23-items in Lumpkin, Greenberg and Goldstucker's scale, means values for the mature consumers ranged from 4.08 to 6.82 out of a range of 1.0 to 7.0 with 1" indicating not important and 7" indicating very important.  For the apparel retailers the means values ranged from 4.24 to 6.78.  Eight of the scale items resulted in significant differences between the two groups at the 0.05 level.  Most notable was the item ranked most important to the mature consumers, relating to the ability to return unsatisfactory products.
The scale items were factored into seven groups.  With factor loadings greater than 0.60, 16 of the 23 items were included in the factors.  These factors were named and ranked by the mature consumer from most important to least important as follows: quality assurance; shopping ease; personalized service; credit options; physical facilities; merchandising; and package assistance.  Of these seven factors, the importance of four were rated significantly different by mature consumers and apparel retailers at the 0.05 level.  Three were rated significantly higher by the mature consumer: quality assurance, shopping ease and physical facilities.  Only credit options was rated significantly higher by apparel retailers.
Implications.  This study presents a list of customer services perceived to be most important when appealing to needs of mature consumers.  To meet the needs of the mature apparel consumer, retail managers are encouraged to recognize the importance that many of their customers are placing on specific areas of customer service.  Their goal should be to recognize the true importance of their customers€' needs and develop plans to efficiently meet or exceed the quality of services demanded.  In addition, customers, young or old, should be able to appropriately convey their needs to the service provider.
Reference.
     Lumpkin, J., Greenberg, B., and Goldstucker, J.  (1985).  Marketing needs of the elderly:  Determinant attributes and store choices.  Journal of Retailing, 61 (2), 75-105.

19. A VALUE-ADDED APPROACH TO LEARNING
Diana Cone and Diane Phillips, Georgia Southern University

Purpose.  As we enter the new millennium, educators are challenged to provide an educational paradigm which provides holistic, interdisciplinary experiences that parallel today's business environment.  Collaborative learning (individuals working together toward a common goal) can help prepare students for the workplace, promote team problem solving, improve communication skills, encourage learning in a global context and challenge students to become creative.  The purpose was to pilot a collaborative project that required students from various disciplines and classes to function in a real-world setting.
Procedures.  Two family and consumer science faculty members developed a pilot project which involved a collaborative network between students and business professionals. Students in three separate classes, representing five disciplines combined their knowledge, skills, and efforts toward the completion of one common project.    The objectives of the multifaceted project were to:

1. utilize resources to maximum efficiency in real-life problem solving situations
2. identify and capitalize on individual strengths in a team setting
3. apply problem-solving skills
4. demonstrate effective communication skills
5. produce professional quality work by capitalizing on the knowledge and skills
   received from the entire sequence of professional courses.

Students formed multi-level teams, created a theme for an exhibit, communicated with business officials throughout the planning of the exhibit, created a model of their exhibit, and developed a brochure highlighting their theme.  Each team presented their group's ideas and the most workable and creative solution was selected for actual implementation.
Findings.   Students worked collaboratively to successfully satisfy the project requirements.  Each team member brought specialization to the group. This cross-departmental and cross-discipline collaboration project with business professionals proved to be both challenging and exciting.  Post-project evaluations of the pilot project completed by students and business professionals indicated that students felt more confident about their own strengths and applying them in a group with members from diverse backgrounds, and that receiving criticism and accepting others' views was a difficult aspect of the project.  The business professionals indicated that the students exhibited a higher level of preparedness with each session and were better able to express their ideas and formulate questions.
Implications.  This pilot project showed thatcollaborative work can enhance the learning environment by aiding in problem solving, fostering interdisciplinary thinking, and promoting analytical and communicative skills of all forms.  This value-added approach to learning fosters thinking and decision making that are necessary in today's workplace.

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20. EMPATHY LEVELS OF ADOLESCENTS ENROLLED IN
HIGH SCHOOL FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES
Karen L. Alexander and Jerelyn B. Schultz, University of Kentucky and The Ohio State University

The purposes of this study were to examine empathy levels of adolescents enrolled in FCS programs, to determine whethercognitive and emotional empathy behaviors differed by gender, and to determine how demographic variables influenced adolescent empathy.
The purposeful sample (n=186) consisted of students in FCS programs from three different communities:  rural, urban, and suburban.  Females comprised 69% of the sample and males comprised 31% of the sample.  The sample was also distributed across grades nine, ten, eleven and twelve.
Subjects were administered the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Davis, 1980) which measures four dimensions of empathy:  empathic concern, (r=.74); personal distress, (r=.73); perspective taking, (r=.73); fantasy, (r=.75).
Overall means and standard deviations were generated for each of the four subscales of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index:  Perspective Taking (M=14.64, SD=4.38); Fantasy (M=13.21, SD=4.98); Personal Distress (M=12.03, SD=4.41); and Empathic Concern (M=18.14, SD=4.16).  The ANOVA determined that gender was a significant contributor to the variance between the four subscales:  Perspective Taking (F=11.61, p<.001), Fantasy (F=7.33, p<.007), Personal Distress (F=49.62, p<.000), and Empathic Concern (F=28.10, p<.000).
Males had lower mean scores than females.  The means and standard deviations for males were Perspective Taking (M=13.02, SD=4.42), Fantasy (M=11.71, SD=5.46), Personal Distress (M=8.93, SD=4.21), and Empathic Concern (M=15.82, SD=4.33).  The means and standard deviations for females were Perspective Taking (M=15.34, SD=4.19), Fantasy (M=13.84, SD=4.64), Personal Distress (M=13.38, SD=3.78), and Empathic Concern (M=19.13, SD=3.67).
Gender was used as a covariant in the multivariate analysis of empathy.  Results determined that grade level was the only demographic variable that contributed to the variance in the empathy subscales with a significant Wilks' Lambda of .853 (f=2.02, p=.02).  Analysis of the grade levels showed that twelfth graders had the highest means on three subscales:  Fantasy (M=14.16, SD=5.65), Perspective Taking (M=15.76, SD=4.17), and Empathic Response (M=19.11, SD=4.28), and they had the lowest score on the Personal Distress subscale (M=10.74, SD=4.00).  Ninth graders showed the highest level of personal distress (M=12.76, SD=4.88).  Tenth graders had the second highest scores on the Fantasy, Perspective Taking, and Empathic Response subscales and the second lowest score on the Personal Distress subscale.
Gender is an important variable with empathy.  The development and implementation of FCS curriculum content must promote more experiences related to empathy for all students but especially for males.  Male perspectives in the curriculum development process are critical because the majority of FCS educators are female and would tend to develop curriculum and instructional materials from a female perspective.
Age is also an important variable with empathy.  Empathy development is a process and FCS educators must promote its development throughout the curriculum.  Since there is evidence from existing research of a pattern of earlier cognitive development in adolescents, the cognitive aspects of empathy (perspective taking, fantasy) should be the focus of courses with early to middle adolescents.  Since the emotional aspects of empathy (empathic concern, personal distress) tend to increase with the development of cognition, courses serving middle to late adolescents should provide more opportunities to develop the emotional aspects of empathy.  Experiences with planning and participating in service learning projects, especially through FCCLA, may also increase empathy development for all students.

21. CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES TEACHERS RELATED TO
ATTITUDES TOWARD USING COMPUTERS AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIUM
Sheri L. Lokken, Wanda K. Cheek, Shirley W. Hastings, Mississippi State University,
Mississippi State University, University of Tennessee

Computer anxiety and attitude toward computers exhibited by high school teachers can present a significant obstacle to helping students become more technology proficient and make teachers more reluctant to incorporate technology.  The purpose of this study was to examine relationships among characteristics of high school family and consumer sciences (FCS) teachers (age, education, computer experience, and computer usage) with their attitudes toward computers (computer anxiety, computer liking, confidence in computer skills, and importance of computers as a learning method) prior to technology training.
The sample consisted of 42 FCS teachers selected to participate in a new technology-based FCS program.  The Computer Anxiety and Attitudes Toward Computers Study (Chou, 1997) questionnaire was administered to the teachers to investigate their attitudes toward computers prior to completing an intensive, two-week technology training.  A team of three university faculty members collected the data and conducted the training.  For the purposes of this study, computer experience, computer use, computer anxiety, computer liking, confidence in computer skills, and importance of computers as a learning method were quantified based on numerical scores assigned to participants' responses using Chou€'s methods.
Hypotheses were:  1) Age will be positively related to anxiety and inversely related to confidence, liking, and importance as a learning method.  2) Education will be inversely related to anxiety and positively related to confidence, liking, and importance as a learning method.  3) Computer experience will be inversely related to anxiety and positively related to confidence, liking, and importance as a learning method.  4) Computer use will be inversely related to anxiety and positively related to confidence, liking, and importance as a learning method.
Pearson correlations were run to test for relationships among variables.  Age was positively correlated with anxiety (r=.429, p=.005) and inversely correlated with confidence (r=-.345, p=.023).  Education was positively correlated with anxiety (r=.420, p=.006) and inversely correlated with importance as a learning method (r=-.374, p=.015).  Computer experience was not significantly correlated with any dependent variable, and computer use was significantly inversely correlated with computer anxiety (r=-.326, p=.035).  Findings indicate older teachers may have more anxiety toward computers and less confidence in using computers.  In this sample, older teachers held the highest degrees, had more computer anxiety, and placed less value on computers as a learning tool in the classroom.  Finally, higher frequency of computer use by teachers appears to be correlated with less computer anxiety.  These characteristics of teachers should be taken into account by trainers in preparing technology instruction for teachers.
     Chou, T. R. (1997). The relationships among computer usage, experience with the computer, computer anxiety, and attitudes toward computers for secondary agricultural education teachers in the United States. Mississippi State:  Dissertation.

22. GENDER AS A FACTOR IN COGNITIVE STYLE OF PROFESSIONALS IN
FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCE FIELDS
Barbara L. Stewart, Robert L. Fritz, and Marcella Norwood, University of Houston

Among the challenges of preparing future professionals for careers in Family and Consumer Sciences is the current employment climate, which demands ever-increasing levels of analytic skills.  Family and Consumer Science educators can assist in preparing graduates by identifying students for potential success in specific professional areas by matching students' talents and abilities with the demands of the workplace.
Three aspects of this opportunity were included for this investigation.  First, the personal talent and skill area of cognitive style was selected for investigation because it has been identified as a substantial influence on the application of mental functioning of individuals in specific situations.  Second, gender was included to assess the influence of gender on cognitive style.  Third, professionals representing two specific fields open to students in Family and Consumer Science programs were examined.  These professional fields were consumer services and purchasing.  Additionally, secondary students were included in the analysis for comparison.
Methods.  Intact group methodology was used to identify and gather data from 44 professionals and 237 secondary students.  Professionals were members of the Society of Consumer Affairs Professionals, the International Consumer Service Association, and the National Association of Purchasing Management.
The Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) is a standardized test of cognitive style.  Test scores of 0-18 indicate subjects€' scaled position as having a field-dependent or field-independent cognitive style.  The GEFT was administered in group settings to both the professionals and the high school students.  Data analysis included ANOVA and a Scheffe test for statistical significance.
Findings.   Of the professionals, 30 subjects were female and 14 were male. Of the students, 150 participants were female and 87 were male.  With regard to gender, the GEFT scores of participants were statistically different.  Significant differences (p<.05) were found for both the professional and student groups. In each case males had scores indicating more field-independent cognitive styles.  Additionally, the GEFT scores of professional males were significantly more field-independent than the scores of professional women.
Implications.  In all cases, mean scores of professionals and students indicated greater field-independent cognitive styles for men than for women.  This may have implications for career advisement and preparation of future professionals.  It is possible that assessment of gender coupled with cognitive style could aid educators in helping students select particular career options and in developing curricular experiences designed to stretch or develop specific skills in students needed to meet workplace demands.

23. PRINCIPAL'S PERCEPTION OF FEMALE TEACHERS DRESS ON TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS
Janie O. Kenner, Rachel A. Underwood, Sandra McClune, Stephen F. Austin State University

Clothing is more than physical appearance. It supports a professional image and establish one's reputation as a professional. Workman (1984) found that teachers who dressed in professional clothing received higher scores on being intellectual and credible, and better prepared for class.
Purpose. The purpose of the research was to investigate high school principals perception in regard to dress of female teachers. Ten occupational attributes, responsibility, competency, knowledgeability, professionalism, honesty, reliability, intelligence, trustworthiness, willingness to work hard, and efficiency, identified by Kwon (1994) were used.
Procedure. The questionnaire included demographic variables of years as principal, gender, age, level of education, size of school and location. Three female dress modes: traditional, business casual, and leisure, were shown in line illustrations. Principals ranked the occupational attributes for female per dress mode on a five-point Likert scale. A stratified random sample of 231 Texas principal names were selected from the five school divisions. Seventy-four were returned.
Findings. Respondents were male (80%) and Caucasian (93.06%). School boards and principals establish dress policy with principals being responsible for enforcement. Principals (51.37%) indicated satisfaction with faculty dress on campus which was primarily business casual. In contrast, traditional attire was worn by principals (68.92%). Choices of income, comfort, school setting and lack of knowledge of appropriate dress were listed as factors in influencing teacher dress. Comfort was the number one factor in apparel selection.
The top three attributes for traditional dress: professionalism (4.57), responsibility (4.19), and competence (4.07); for business casual: professionalism (4.07), responsibility (3.92), and efficiency (3.83); for leisure dress: willingness to work (2.61), knowledgeability (2.60), and efficiency (2.60). If traditional business attair is worn, the female teacher is seen as being overwhelmingly professional, responsible, and competent. When dressed in leisure attire a significant drop in rankings occurred when compared to professional dress. Efficiency and reliability were the only attributes cited across all three modes of dress. Traditional business attire indicates a more professional image.
Implications. Undergraduate education students and classroom teachers need to improve knowledge of dress. Fashion merchandising and teacher education professionals have the knowledge to assist the school districts in concepts related to appearance and dress.
References.
     Kwon, Yoon-Hee (1994). The influence of Appropriateness of Dress and Gender on the Self-Perception of Occupational Attributes. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 12 (3), 33-39.
     Workman, J. E. (1984). Effects of appropriate and inappropriate attire on attributions of personal dispositions. Clothing and Textile Research Journal, 3 (1), 20-23.

24. WHY SHOP THERE IF YOU CAN GET IT HERE
Linda Simpson, Jane Wayland, Barbara Kemmerer, Eastern Illinois University

Purpose. Outshopping is defined as the customer buying goods away from home that could be purchased locally. Previous studies have examined retail outshopping to determine the demographics of outshoppers (Anderson and Kaminsky, 1985; Hopper and Lipscomb, 1991) and major causes of outshopping (LaForge, Reese, and Stanton, 1984). The purpose of this exploratory study was to determine if consumer attitudes toward local retailers, outshopping, or the overall enjoyment of shopping makes a difference in outshopping behavior in a community.
Methodology. Outshopping behavior was measured using three standard scales. Likert questions were developed using Hopper and Liscomb's (1991) Outshopping Scale (a=.74), Hawes and Lumpkin's (1984) Attitude Toward Local Shopping Scale (a=.71), and O'Guinn and Fabor's (1989) Shopping Enjoyment Scale (a=.80). Focus groups were conducted for aid in questionnaire development. The questionnaire was administered using two methods of data collection with the objective of reaching as many residents as possible. A random sample of 1200 residents who reside in a rural midwestern community (population 20,000) was selected by taking every 3rd name from the "address" page in the telephone book while 1926 names were selected for the mail survey using every 5th name. The total sample yielded 712 usable surveys for a 23% response rate.
Findings. The majority of the respondents (65%) indicated that they do not enjoy shopping and only 11% agreed that shopping is enjoyable. In addition, a majority of the respondents tended to have a positive attitude toward outshopping with only 8% not favoring outshopping. In relation to attitudes toward local retailers, approximately 42% of the respondents had a neutral view and 46% has a less than positive view. Of the nine categories of goods and services that were examined, little outshopping occurred in the categories of groceries, gas and auto services, and banking.
T-tests of the three scales were used to determine if there were statistical significant differences between outshoppers and non-outshoppers of restaurant services, clothing, building and home improvement, and gifts as these product categories indicated the highest frequency of outshopping behavior. It was found that outshoppers in each of these categories had a positive view of outshopping (p=.000) and a less positive opinion of local retailers (p=.000). Outshoppers of gifts (p=.002) and building and home products (p=.004) enjoyed outshopping more than non-outshoppers.
Implications. Outshopping can be detrimental to the local economy; therefore, it is vital to closely examine and monitor the relationship of attitudes and patronage behavior of the residents who reside in that community. The specific results of a study such as this are limited to the community in which the study was conducted since the retail climate differs by community; however, the process of conducting a retail trade analysis for different communities may be successfully replicated. It also provides a basis to assist local retailers in understanding and improving the competitive retail environment.

25. LIVING, WORKING, AND PARENTING WITH SECTION 8
Marilyn J. Bruin, University of Minnesota

According to the U.S. Census (2000) 11,510,000 families with a child under 18 years live in poverty. Poor families are often concentrated in neighborhoods lacking the best schools, community resources, and jobs with a living wage. Section 8 tenant-based programs provide householders a voucher for the difference between 30% of adjusted income and fair market rent. Tenants must find an acceptable unit and negotiate with a landlord to accept the voucher. This abstract focuses on parents who use Section 8 vouchers in a suburban county.
Procedures. The Housing and Redevelopment Authority distributed 230 surveys to parents; 64 surveys (30% response rate) were returned. Twenty-seven (43%) respondents wrote responses to the statement, "Is there anything else you would like to tell us about your housing, neighborhood, and family?" Descriptive information from the surveys and responses described live in the suburbs.
Findings and Implications. County residents were 98.7% Caucasian, 79% were home owners; median household income in the county was $43,554. In contrast 97% of the respondents were female heads of households, 64% were Caucasian, 47% have never married, and another 33% were divorced or separated.
The majority experienced discrimination. For example, 69% felt discriminated against because they rent, 69% agreed that people like themselves were discriminated against when trying to buy a house, and 85% agreed that people like themselves had limited opportunities in finding a place to live. Written comments elaborated, "I know they don't like Blacks out here and they don't want us out here. My kids love the school. But some of the people out here lock their door when you walk up to their car and ask them anything. Some will call you a name. The way they look at you when you are walking into a store." Another parent wrote, "It's a struggle because I live in a middle to upper class neighborhood--where my so called 'neighbors' don't want me. . .People scoff at me when I use food stamps here. I feel like I can't make any friends because they look down on me. In the city, I'm sure I'd meet others in my "boat," but not here."
With a median income of $12,000, several parents were very thankful for the vouchers. One parent wrote, "We have a beautiful new town home, I love the neighborhood, I love the school" Another wrote, "Subsidized housing has helped me be able to choose the place I'm in now. I am so thankful fur(sic) this help I don't know what I'd do without it. My and my son's quality of life increased 100% with this help and also because I'm making healthy choices also." Other respondents were frustrated and dissatisfied. Parents were concerned about noisy neighbors or that neighbors complained about noisy children. Safety was also a common concern. For example a parent wrote, "I get very scared in this building. It's always dirty and loud."
Parents appreciate suburban schools and neighborhood safety. Many low-income parents feel safe, secure housing allows them to focus on parenting and work. However, life in the suburbs is not without problems; discrimination and isolation were frequently mentioned problems.

26. DISHWASHING PRACTICES AND WATER USAGE
JoAnn Emmel, Julia Beamish, and Kathleen Parrott, Virginia Tech

Purpose. The purpose of this research was to examine the dishwasher usage patterns and cleaning satisfaction of today's consumers in an effort to learn more about the water usage for this task. Of particular interest was prerinsing dishes before placing them into the dishwasher. With an increasing concern about water usage in our nation, dishwashing practices could be contributing to unnecessary water consumption. No matter how water efficient a dishwasher might be, ultimately it is the consumers' actions related to prerinsing, cycle selection, and other operational decisions that determine actual water usage.
Procedure. Information about consumer dishwasher usage was collected in two separate samples using different methods. Data for a local sample of 78 individuals were collected during the summer of 2000 as part of an extensive interview on kitchen design and usage. The random national sample involved a telephone survey of 630 respondents during Fall 2000 to gather information about the design, use, and composition of the respondents' kitchens. The interview form and survey asked some of the same questions about dishwashing, but the local interview involved a more extensive list.
Findings. All but 6.7% of the national sample prerinsed their dishes at least some of the time before placing them into the dishwasher, and almost half prerinsed 5 or more times per week or about every time they used the dishwasher. Families and younger respondents were those most likely to prerinse. The rinse and hold cycle, which uses from 2-4.5 gallons of water, was used by only one quarter of the users, far less than the number prerinsing at the faucet, which can use up to 25 gallons if the faucet is continuously running. When asked why they prerinsed dishes, the top reason was because dishes would not be washed right away, followed by uncertainty over whether or not dishes would become clean, and habit. A majority of both samples' users were satisfied with dishwasher performance. Ninety-three percent of the local sample only washed with full loads.
Implications. Today's dishwashers use about half of the water they did 20 years ago, but the fact that many consumers continue to prerinse dishes - despite being told by manufacturers and consumer educators they do not need to - negates much of the water savings. Consumers express satisfaction with their dishwasher's performance, but concern about performance leads to frequent prerinsing. Many consumers who lowered hot water temperatures during the last energy crisis may have experienced poor dishwasher satisfaction which may have led to some of their prerinsing habits. More consumer education is needed in the areas of cycle selection, prerinsing, and dishwasher selection to help consumers with dishwashing efficiency, choosing the correct appliance for their households' needs, and conserving water.

27. SOCIOLOGICAL AND CONSUMER DIMENSIONS OF THE MIDWIFERY MOVEMENT
Kelly Shannon Manley, Michallene G. McDaniel, University of Georgia and Gainesville College

Purpose. Previous studies of women's choice of birth attendants (Galotti, Pierce, Reimer, and Luckner, 2000; Howell-White, 1997), though enlightening, have not applied consumer theories to the decision-making process. Given the increase of market-driven characteristics in healthcare in the United States, analyzing childbearing women's decisions from sociological and consumer perspectives will help to shed light on the multidimensional aspects of the process.
Procedures. Content analysis was used to analyze newsletters and pamphlets from 1999 and 2000 from a U.S. midwifery advocacy organization. This particular group was chosen because it is the only consumer-based national midwifery advocacy organization in the United States (involving the general public as well as midwives and other birth attendants). The information contained in the newsletters and pamphlets was analyzed not only for the content, but also for its theoretical or ideological perspective.
Findings. The vast majority of information contained in the newsletters and pamphlets may be broadly classified into feminist (i.e., female empowerment) and consumer rhetoric. These classifications were made based upon the larger cultural ideals embedded in the rhetoric of the literature. The organization appears to approach empowerment through multiple avenues so that women who may not feel a connection with feminist rhetoric may instead identify with the ideals of consumerism and consumer empowerment. Two main themes in the materials contained in both types of rhetoric were choice and authority. The consumer perspective is helpful in mainstreaming midwifery into healthcare decisions from its more typical alternative associations.
Implications. It appears from this preliminary analysis that it is necessary to apply both sociological and consumer theories of information seeking and decision making behavior in order to understand fully women who are making birth attendant choices. Given that use of midwives tends to be more cost effective than traditional obstetrical care (Howell-White, 1999), it is of the utmost importance to explore viable, cost-effective alternatives for childbearing women, particularly since the number of uninsured citizens is predicted to rise over the next decade (Reuters Health, 2000).
References.
     Galotti, K.M., Pierce, B., Reimer, R.L., and Luckner, A.E. (2000, July/August). Midwife or doctor: A study of pregnant women making delivery decisions. Journal of Midwifery and Women's Health, 45, 320-329.
     Howell-White, S. (1999). Birth alternatives: How women select childbirth care. Westport: Greewood Press.
     Papps, E. and Olssen, M. (1997). Doctoring childbirth and regulating midwifery in New Zealand. Palmerston (New Zealand): Dunmore Press.
     Reuters Health. (2000, December 15). US uninsured could top 61 million by 2009. [on-line]. Available: news.excite.com/news/r/001215/13/health-uninsured.

28. SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND HOUSING VALUES OF KOREAN HOUSEHOLDS
Sehwa Yang, Myojung Kim and Jinseon Hur, University of Ulsan, Korea

Housing values are general guidelines for evaluation of housing and serve to organize housing norms for specific housing conditions and behaviors. According to Cutler, housing values between socioeconomic classes are quite different, while values within classes are roughly similar. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between housing values and socioeconomic status of Korean households. As Cutler developed, ten housing values were analyzed: beauty, convenience, comfort, location, health, personal interest, privacy, safety, friendship, and cost. For the socioeconomic status of the households, education of the head, household income, and occupation of the head were utilized. A self-administered questionnaire was developed, and distributed to 450 households living in Ulsan, Korea. The final sample consisted of 411 households. Results from descriptive statistics and one-way analysis of variance with Sheffé test were examined to address the purpose of this study.
The significant effects of education of head were found on beauty and privacy values. The households with more educated head had higher values on beauty and privacy. The occupation of the head affected only location value. The Sheffé test revealed that the households headed with professional jobs reported higher housing values of location. It was found that four housing values including health, privacy, safety, and cost were significantly related to household income. Specifically, households with higher income were more likely to rank these four housing values high. Additionally, the relationship between these three socioeconomic variables and how much housing values were net by current housing conditions were also analyzed.
According to the results, among the variables representing the socioeconomic status of households, it was appeared that either education level or occupation of the head had less important effects on housing values in Korea. Households with higher income were more likely to consider various aspects of housing. However, they perceived that their current housing conditions did not meet what they're thinking important. The results of this study have implications for housing educators in Korea to study housing values in the context of other housing characteristics and housing behaviors. Also, either policy makers or planners should keep in mind the underlying roles of housing values of households.

29. APPLIANCE DISPOSAL BY JAPANESE CONSUMERS
Pat McCallister, Eastern Illinois University

Purpose. The purpose of this study was to determine the reasons, attitudes and procedures for appliance disposal by Japanese consumers. Japan is one of the highest population density countries in the world. It has a limited means for recycling products and often incinerators waste. In addition housing for families is small and crowded, which leaves little room for extra luxuries. Japanese consumers are often known for their desire to have the latest in technology and reluctance to purchase used items.
Procedures. An English worded, self-administered questionnaire was given to 107 selected adults in Japan. The respondents were provided a check-list and asked to indicate the reasons, attitudes and procedures used in their disposal of appliances. The participants who completed the questionnaire communicated in English as a second language; however, the researcher was available to clarify or answer questions from the respondents. Frequencies were used for data analysis. The total number of responses exceeded 107 since respondents could check all answers that applied.
Some demographics of the consumers in the survey were that office worker (67.35%) was listed as the most frequent occupation for the man and housewife (35.5%) as the primary occupation for the woman. Twenty percent of the respondents lived in four-member households and ten percent resided in five-member households. Almost half of the respondents lived in a 4 to 7 room apartment or house.
Findings. Some findings were when Japanese consumers disposed of an appliance: 43 consumers gave it to a member outside the household, 39 threw it in the trash, 28 took it to be recycled, 10 advertised and sold it, and 7 gave it to the Salvation Army or other donation site. The most frequent reasons for disposal of an appliance were: 68 stated it was broken and would not work and 27 respondents, the second most frequent response, indicated a newer and better model came on the market. When a consumer threw an appliance in the trash pile, the expectations for disposal were that it would be recycled, hauled away by the trash collector or collected by a Japanese person.
Implications. This study is important to understand the actions of consumers in other countries because our global society shares the one Earth. Professionals who work with international governments, industries and consumers need to understand consumer decision making practices in relation to appliance disposal so that education programs for consumers, legislative policy and appliance manufacturing practices can be reviewed and proposed.

30. ESTIMATED AVERAGE DAILY INTAKES OF DIETARY ENERGY AND
FAT DO NOT DIFFER BETWEEN SELF-REPORTED CHRONIC DIETERS AND NON-DIETERS
Jeannemarie M. Beiseigel and Sharon M. Nickols-Richardson, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University

Continual dieting for weight management through restriction of caloric or dietary fat intake is common among young-adult females. It remains in question, however, if females who self-report "chronic dieting" consume fewer kilocalories and grams of dietary fat on a daily basis compared to females who do not diet. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to test the hypothesis that young-adult females with self-reported histories of chronic dieting would have significantly lower (p < 0.05) average daily dietary energy and fat intakes compared to non-dieters.
Young-adult (aged 18 to 25 years), moderately active, Caucasian females participated in this exploratory cross-sectional study. Participants reported the amount of time during the previous 12 months that they spent dieting as: a) never; b) < 50% of the time, or c) > 50% of the time (Grunewald, 1985). Females who reported dieting greater than 50% of the time during the previous year were classified as chronic dieters (n=13). Females who reported never dieting during the previous year were classified as non-dieters (n=36). All other respondents were excluded. The Food Frequency Questionnaire (Block, 1998) was used to collect dietary intake data during the past year. Average daily dietary energy and fat intakes were calculated for each participant from her Food Frequency Questionnaire using the DIETSYS+Plus Analysis Software (version 5.9, 1999, Block Dietary Data Systems, Berkeley, CA, USA). Height (cm) and weight (kg) were measured with a stadiometer and digital scale, respectively, and along with age, were used to calculate each participant's estimated daily energy and fat requirements (Food ProcessorÒ dietary analysis software, version 7.5, esha Research, Salem, OR, USA). Student's t-tests were conducted to identify differences in mean body height and weight, daily energy intake, daily dietary fat intake, and percent of estimated energy and fat requirements between chronic dieters and non-dieters (Statistical Analysis System, version 8.0, SAS, Cary, NC, USA).
Chronic dieters were significantly shorter than non-dieters (168+1 vs. 162+2 cm, respectively; mean + SEM, p<0.05); however, mean body weight was not significantly different between groups (65±3 vs. 63±2 kg, respectively). Total average daily energy (1792±179 vs. 1861±103 kcal) and dietary fat (65±3 vs. 63±7 g) intakes of chronic dieters and non-dieters, respectively, also did not significantly differ between groups. Furthermore, when calculated as a percentage of estimated requirements, to account for the significant difference in body height, significant differences in average daily percent intake of energy (82±5 vs. 80±9 %) and dietary fat (83±10 vs. 86±5 %) between chronic dieters and non-dieters, respectively, were not found.
Results from this exploratory study suggest that when food intake is averaged over time, young-adult, moderately active, Caucasian females who identify themselves as chronic dieters may not consume significantly less dietary energy and fat compared to non-dieters. Survey tools that better distinguish chronic dieters from non-dieters are needed.
     Grunewald, K. K. (1985). Weight control in young college women: Who are the dieters? Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 85, 1445-1450.
     Block Dietary Data Systems. (1998). The Block98.2 Food Frequency Questionnaire. Berkeley, CA.

31. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE PRACTICES OF NUTRITION and EXERCISE STUDENTS
Barbara A. Davis, Tim Roberts, and F.A. Bruce Jr., Virginia Tech

This study was designed to assess the use of alternative medicine therapies among college students. A survey instrument was developed and distributed to students (n=474) enrolled in three core nutrition courses within the Human Nutrition, Foods and Exercise Department at Virginia Tech. Questions related to past and current use of a variety of herbal preparations, other alternative medicine practices as well as vitamin and mineral supplements. Participants were also queried about their reasons for using these therapies to assess their knowledge of alternative medicine practices.
Forty percent of college nutrition and exercise majors participating in this survey (n=352) reported use of herbal supplements, while 54% of participants used a multivitamin supplement. Ginseng and garlic were the most frequently used herbal preparations followed by green tea, echinacea, ginger, St. John's Wort, Gingko biloba, Ma Huang (ephedra), tea tree oil, and kava kava. Green tea and echinacea were used more frequently by females, whereas ephedra was used more frequently by males (p<0.05). Females were more likely to consume multivitamin supplements than males (58 vs. 46%, respectively, p<0.05). Calcium supplementation was also more common in women than men (25.7 vs. 15.7%, respectively, p<0.05). However, males consumed creatine more frequently than females (34 vs. 5%, respectively, p<0.05). Interestingly, there was no significant difference in consumption of folate supplements between females and males, despite the fact that women in this study were of childbearing age.
Other alternative medicine practices reported by study participants included imagery, meditation, chiropractics, art/music therapy, yoga, therapeutic touch, traditional Chinese medicine, magnetic therapy, and acupuncture. Females practiced imagery/relaxation techniques, meditation, and yoga more often (p<0.01), whereas males were more likely to see a chiropractor (p<0.01). No other significant differences in gender-related use of these practices were noted.
Results from this study demonstrate that a significant proportion of nutrition and exercise majors use alternative nutrition and medical therapies. The results of this study correlate with data published regarding use of such therapies by other populations (Eisenberg et al., 1998; DHHS, 1999) and underscore the importance of incorporating alternative medicine education in the curriculum of nutrition and exercise majors.
     Eisenberg, D.M., Davis, R.B., Ettner, S.L., Appel, S., Wilkey, S., Rompay, M.V., and Kessler, R.C. (1998). Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States, 1990-1997. Journal American Medical Association, 280 (18), 1569-75.
     US Dept. of Health and Human Services (DHHS), National Center for Health Statistics. (1999). Use of dietary supplements in the United States, 1988-94. Series 11: Data From the National Health Examination Survey, the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, and the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey No. 244. DHHS No. (PHS) 99-1694. Hyattsville, MD: Centers For Disease Control and Prevention.

32.  WHO IN THE U.S  IS CONSUMING FUNCTIONAL FOODS?
Jeannette Endres and Sharon Barter, Southern Illinois University

Purpose. Market surveys can indicate consumption trends of targeted foods. Functional foods are defined as foods providing benefits beyond basic nutrition (ADA, 1999). Consumption of functional foods has been advocated. Surveys on foods that consumers believe have health promoting properties are available (ADA, 2000 and IFIC, 1998). Consumers intend to eat foods with health promoting properties; however, how often do they actually consume functional foods?
This study reports the per capita consumption of approximately 40 targeted functional foods during 1999, and what has been the 10-year trend in consumption of these foods. A detailed analysis of 10 targeted foods provides descriptive data on who is eating specific functional foods.
Procedures. Food consumption data were analyzed from National Eating Trend survey including over 2000 households collected on a representative sample of the US population. Ten foods frequently eaten and rated as most important by researchers working in the area were targeted for further study. The presentation will include consumption patterns gathered on tomatoes, chocolate, tuna, garlic, broccoli, yogurt, grapes, cabbage, whole wheat bread, and cranberries.
Findings. Data show that consumption of frequently identified functional foods has decreased or stayed the same for the last 10 years. The population rarely eats some foods identified as functional foods, cranberries, blueberries, and salmon. Data show that the use of targeted foods varies by age, income, family size, urban verses rural areas, race, education, occupation, and head of household. The demographics of the population and the consumption patterns will be discussed in relation to planning consumer education to increase consumption of foods containing health-promoting properties.
Implications. Most research efforts have been targeted toward studying functional properties of foods as well as the attitudes and beliefs of consumers toward consumption of specific foods. If we are to target future educational programs to encourage consumption of functional foods, knowledge of current consumption trends of targeted functional foods could prove useful and provide direction for future educational program planning.
References.
     American Dietetic Association (ADA). Position of the American Dietetic Association: Functional foods. J Am Diet Assoc. 999;99:1278-1285.
     American Dietetic Association (ADA). Americans' food and nutrition attitudes and behaviors: American Dietetic Association's Nutrition and you-Trends 2000 survey. Accessed 4/21/01 at www.eatright.org/pr/2000/010300a.html.
     International Food Information Council (IFIC) Foundation. Functional Foods: Attitudinal Research. Food Insight. 1999.
     Research was supported by the Illinois Council on Food and Agricultural Research.

33. IS FOOD SAFETY KNOWLEDGE PUT INTO PRACTICE BY
CONSUMERS IN MIDDLE TENNESSEE?
Sandria L. Godwin, Thelma Sanders-Hunter,
Leslie Speller-Henderson, Tennessee State University

Introduction. Much emphasis has been placed on food safety in recent years, yet millions of cases of food-borne illness occur each year in the United States alone. The Partnership for Food Safety Education was launched in 1997, which combines the resources of the government, industry and consumer organizations. From this effort has emerged the Fight Bac!TM campaign, which targets consumers of many different types.
Purpose. In order to assess the awareness and implementation of the4se messages, a comprehensive knowledge and practice survey instrument was developed, pretested, and revised which used the messages from the Fight Bac!TM program. Questions included multiple choice, true-false (with an "I don't know") option, and likert-scale. One hundred forty-six persons of various races, age groups and both sexes completed the survey.
Results. Results indicate that consumer's food safety knowledge conflicts with their food safety practices. The data suggest that some messages are clearer than others. A high percentage of respondents understood the importance of hand washing, but not the recommended length of time. In practice, hands were actually washed depending on the source of the germs, ie. food, pets, diapers, cigarettes, etc. Consumers appear to be least knowledgeable about specific times and temperatures. Highest scores for knowledge and practice were received on questions relating to cross-contamination.
Implications. Although many consumers are aware of what food safety practices they should be doing, in many cases, they were not implementing that knowledge. Additional intervention appears to be needed to ensure that food safety knowledge corresponds to food safety practice.
     This projected was funded by USDA.

34. PREVALENCE OF FOOD INSECURITY AND DIETARY PRACTICE OF
LOW INCOME PERSONS PARTICIPATING IN FOOD ASSITANCE PROGRAM
Nweze Nnakwe, Illinois State University

Food insecurity is defined as the limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or limited or uncertain ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways. Food insecurity is a problem of critical importance for our society. Addressing food insecurity requires knowing the prevalence of the problem and the groups that are affected. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of food insecurity and dietary practices of low-income persons.
Prior to conducting the research, the procedures were reviewed and approved by the University's Human Subjects Institutional Review Board. Upon verbal consent for participating in the study, participants were surveyed by utilizing Radimer/Cornell hunger questionnaire to determine the prevalence of food insecurity. Food frequency questionnaire was used to assess the dietary practices. Demographic data including marital status, and education level were collected using a multilevel assessment instrument. A total of two hundred and thirty five subjects were interviewed. Statistical analysis for food intake was calculated by One Way Analysis of Variance. The prevalence of food insecurity was determined by Pearson Chi-square.
Results show that six percent of 55-69 year old experienced food insecurity with moderate hunger and food insecurity without hunger. Twenty four percent of the households with children experienced food insecurity without hunger. Twelve percent experienced food insecurity with moderate and severe hunger. Households with children experienced food insecurity more than those without children, this was statistically significant at p<0.01. Twelve percent of individuals with less than high school education experienced food insecurity without hunger. Seven percent experienced food insecurity with moderate hunger. Thirteen percent of the individuals with high school education and those with some college education experienced food insecurity without hunger. Twelve percent experienced food insecurity with moderate hunger and nine percent experienced food insecurity with severe hunger. Households without children consumed more dairy products, meat, and citrus fruits than the households with children, this was statistically significantly at p<0.001, p<0.01 and p<0.001, respectively. Households with children consumed significantly more grains, and fatty snack foods, this was significant at p<0.01, and p<0.05, respectively. Women consumed significantly more dairy products than men; the difference was significant at p<0.04. Men consumed slightly more citrus fruits, vegetables and grains than women. The implications of this study were that food insecurity exists among older persons and low-income people.

35. QUALITY OF LIFE AND NUTRITION RISK IN ELDERLY HOME-DELIVERED
MEAL RECIPIENTS AND A WAITING LIST GROUP
Elaine S. Smith, Alice A. Spangler, and Rebecca A. Adams, Ball State University

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the impact of receiving a home-delivered meal on the quality of life and nutritional risk of homebound elders. Forty-three subjects (age 60-94 years of age) receiving home-delivered meals were matched as a group with 43 subjects (age 65-94 years of age) on a waiting list for a home-delivered meal program in Pennsylvania. Matching criteria were functional needs measure, age, gender, and living arrangement of the two groups. Each group had 29 women and 14 men. In both groups approximately 50% lived alone and approximately 40% lived with a spouse; no subjects lived with non-relatives.
Home visits were conducted to collect the data. Nutritional risk was assessed by the Nutrition Screening Initiative's Determine Checklist. Quality of life was measured across various domains including a global quality of life self-rating, Geriatric Depression Scale, functional ability including ADL's (Activities of Daily Living and IADL's (Instrumental Activities of Daily Living), and a food enjoyment scale. The study also documented the resources for meal preparation and grocery shopping possessed by the meal recipient group and the waiting list group.
Results indicate the two groups were similar statistically (p>.05) in level of nutrition risk; 49% of the meal recipient group were at high nutrition risk; 56% of the waiting list group were at high nutrition risk. Two-tailed t-tests failed to show differences in quality of life between the groups at the 0.05 level of significance. A significant difference (p=0.039) was seen in the number of resources reported for meal preparation assistance with the waiting list group reporting the use of more informal resources such as family and other informal caregivers.
The research will be useful to meal program planners because it identifies specific problems of nutrition risk in this population. Meal recipients seemed to be those truly in need with less ability to provide for self. Most of the meal recipients were dependent on the home-delivered meal as demonstrated by the findings that more in the home-delivered meal group expressed an inability to cook and shop for food. The findings on resources and caregiving may help family and consumer sciences and other program planners and providers assist elders to identify informal resources for cooking and meal preparation. The study shows that informal resources other than the home-delivered meal enable non-recipients to maintain a quality of life and level of nutrition similar to their meal recipient peers.

36. THE USE OF AN INSTANT MODIFIED FOOD STARCH IN CREATING
A REDUCED SUGAR RASPBERRY JAM
Janet C. Stocks, Maribeth C. Clarke, CFCS, Carolyn Garrison, Brigham Young University

There is a demand for fruit spreads which contain less sugar and fewer calories. This is not easily achieved. Most reduced sugar jams and jellies rely on Low Methoxyl (LM) pectin to provide gelling, but the resulting fruit spreads are often rubbery with poor flavor retention. The purpose of this research was to develop a formula for superior quality reduced sugar jams and jellies which exceed commercial standards, with the use of a modified food starch (Ultra GelÒ) and a High Methoxyl (HM) pectin. Although starches are not commonly used in jams and jellies, some of their properties are helpful in preventing syneresis and creating a heat stable jam or jelly.
A formulation for reduced sugar jams and jellies with the use of a modified food starch and HM pectin was developed. The reduced sugar jam recipe was formulated without any artificial ingredients or chemical additives. The manufacturing process was free from complicated procedures. The formula used natural sweeteners (sucrose), but in reduced amounts. Existing nutritional standards for reduced sugar products of no more than 30 kilocalories per tablespoon was used as a benchmark. Citric acid was used to maintain an appropriate pH level and to brighten the color of the fruit. Experimentation was performed in a controlled new product development laboratory until the appropriate proportions of hydrocolloids, sugar, fruit mixtures, and liquid were achieved. Four final reduced sugar jam products (two newly developed and two commercial products) were then evaluated in a commercial standard food science sensory evaluation laboratory on standards of aroma, color, clarity, flavor, stability, texture and consistency. A sample panel of 54 participants, ages 18-64 was used. Evaluators registered their responses on touch screen computer panels. Information obtained was statistically analyzed to determine potential consumer acceptance of these products.
Sensory testing revealed that 92% of the evaluators preferred the two newly developed reduced sugar jam products over the existing commercial formulations and all evaluation standards. The newly developed formulations contained 30% fewer calories and nearly half the carbohydrates and sugar of other commercially available reduced sugar fruit spreads. Sensory evaluation of the products indicated that a reduced sugar jam of this nature would be well received by the consumer market.
Market research indicates a demand for superior quality reduced sugar products. Taste and cost evaluations indicate that the products developed in this study can meet that demand at an acceptable cost. Additionally, low sugar formulations can compete favorably with full sugar products. The data acquired gives adequate justification for further marketing research and development of this product.

37. FAMILIES AS POTENTIAL OBSTACLES TO END-OF-LIFE CARE
Maribeth C. Clarke, CFCS; Renea L. Beckstrand, Laura N. Conover, CFCS,
Brigham Young University

Critical care nurses have identified specific family behaviors as directly impacting the end-of-life care process (Kirchhoff and Beckstrand, 2000). What the family does, says, and thinks may play a major role in the success and quality of medical care offered at the end of life. Because the older adult population is projected to reach over 70 million people in the next thirty years (Donaldson and Field, 1998), family and health care professionals must work together to resolve the obstacles and enhance the helpful behaviors surrounding end-of-life care.
The purpose of this study was to access the unique perceptions of the critical care nurse, as he/she is the liaison between the medical staff, patient, and patient's family, in determining both the intensity and the frequency of the family behaviors identified by Kirchhoff and Beckstrand (2000) as obstacles to providing end-of-life care. Specifically, the study sought to identify ways in which families can enhance these helpful behaviors and minimize their impact as obstacles in the end-of-life care process.
A national sample of 1500 staff nurses who had cared for patients at the end of life was randomly selected from the membership of the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses (AACN). Participants were sent a revised version of the National Survey of Critical Care Nurses Regarding End-of-Life Care. Two follow-up mailings for non-respondents were completed. A 61% response rate was achieved (n=861 useable surveys). Obstacles and help items were ranked on the basis of their mean scores to determine which items were perceived as the most intense. Each item intensity score was multiplied by the cumulative frequency score to obtain a perceived severity score. The perceived severity scores were then ranked from highest to lowest.
The two most severe obstacles to providing quality end-of-life care were identified as the family continually calling the nurse and the family not understanding the term "life-saving measures." The four highest ranked helps to the end-of-life care giving process were allowing the family adequate time alone after the death of the patient, maintaining a peaceful, dignified bedside scene for the family, teaching the family how to act around the patient, and the family thanking the nurse after working with the patient. Other top-ranked obstacles and helps also dealt with the family and medical personnel interface, the behavior either initiated by the family or by the medical staff.
This data identifies and offers suggestions toward resolution of some of the concerns surrounding end-of-life care. If family professionals and the medical community work together to educate the family regarding these issues, the quality of the end-of-life care process can be enhanced and thus help the family have a more meaningful experience with the death of a loved one.
     Kirchoff, K. T., and Beckstrand, R. L. (2000). Critical care nurses' perceptions of obstacles and helpful behaviors in providing end-of-life care to dying patients. American Journal of Critical Care, 9(2), 96-105.
     Donaldson, M.S., and Field, M. J. (1998). Measuring quality of care at the end of life. Arch Intern Med, 158, 121-128.

38. ADOLESCENTS AND CONFLICT WITH PEERS: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
PERSONALITY FACTORS AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES*
Debra DeBates, South Dakota State University

Purpose. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between three major personality dimensions of Psychoticism, Neuroticism and Extraversion as influencing the conflict management resolution style of adolescents when involved in conflict with a best friend of the same gender. The conflict management resolution styles were based on styles used by business and industry in assessing conflict with peers. They included the following: Compromising/Collaborating, Accommodating, Dominating, and Avoiding. The adolescent's self-esteem was explored as mediating these effects.
Procedures. The sample for the study consisted of 393 eighth grade students from five middle schools in South Dakota. Measures used in the study were the junior version of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ-JR.), Rosenberg's Self-esteem Scale and a modified version of the Rahim Organizational Conflict Inventory – II. A model was identified to explore the direct relationships between the personality dimensions and conflict resolution style and their effects on conflict resolution style as mediated by self-esteem. In the model, the three personality dimensions (Psychoticism, Neuroticism and Extraversion) served as exogenous variables and self-esteem as a mediator in predicting each of the conflict resolution management styles. A comparison of the model was conducted for males and females as well as for comparing groups based on school achievement using grade point averages. All data analysis procedures were completed using the SPSS 9.0 computer program with the exception of the structural equation model path analysis. The SPSS AMOS 3.6 program was used for these procedures.
Findings. In the first segment of the data analysis, means for each of the three personality dimensions and self-esteem were compared to examine differences related to age, gender, family structure and grade point averages of the participants. Using this data, several significant differences emerged. Younger students had significantly lower self-esteem than older students. Males had significantly higher scores on the Psychoticism dimension of personality while females had significantly higher scores on the Neuroticism dimension than males. No significant differences for self-esteem for males and females were found in this study. Students from two-parent families had significantly higher self-esteem scores than those from one-parent families. A significant main effect for grade point average (GPA) on Psychoticism was found with students with a GPA of C or lower reporting significantly higher scores on this personality dimension than either A or B students. A and B students were also found to have significantly higher scores on the Extraversion dimension of personality. Additional analyses explored differences in conflict resolution style by gender, age, family structure and GPA. A significant difference for gender on the Compromising/Collaborating conflict management style was reported with females more likely to choose this style than males. Males in one-parent families had significantly lower scores on the Avoiding conflict management style than males of females from two-parent families and females in one-parent families.
A major purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of the proposed model in predicting conflict management style of adolescents. In a comparison of the model for each of the four conflict management styles, the strongest support for the model was evidenced in the Compromising/Collaborating conflict resolution style. All of the personality dimensions individually and self-esteem were significant in their relationship to this conflict resolution style. In addition, the role of self-esteem as having a mediating effect on the personality dimensions and the choice of the Compromising/Collaborating style was supported. However, with the remaining three models using the Avoiding, Accommodating and Dominating styles, the role of self-esteem as a mediator was very minimal. While self-esteem may play a role in predicting conflict resolution styles, it did not appear to be a mediator in the relationship between the personality dimensions explored and the conflict resolution styles.
Implications. Results indicated that the ROCI-II instrument appears to measure styles of handling conflict in interpersonal relationships regardless of whether these conflicts occur at work or with friends and with adolescents as well as adults. Further research is needed to explore whether adolescents use similar styles of conflict resolution with peers regardless of setting or situation (with friends, classmates, parents, co-workers, etc.) With the exception of a significant impact of Psychoticism on the Compromising/Collaborating style, it is apparent that this model does little to account for variance in the conflict management styles of adolescents particularly for students with a GPA of C or below. This points to the need for further study to explore what accounts for differences in conflict management styles for those students performing at the C or below level academically. *Dissertation research at Iowa State University

39. THE INFLUENCE OF AFFLUENCE ON GEN-XER'S
Carma Sutherland and Janiel Nelson, Ricks College

The purpose of this survey was to determine the effect(s) of being raised in wealth and abundance. The researchers designed 43 open-ended questions and surveyed 105 voluntary students at Ricks College. Results indicated that the average age students remembered seeing their first television commercial and wanting that item was 5 ½. Students felt excited/happy along with guilty/depressed after returning from a day's shopping and confessed that shopping made them feel good for different reasons, one of which was they were "good at it." The majority of students surveyed did not realize they had been raised in affluence, nor did they perceive themselves as materialistic, yet 40% of respondents had often felt deprived as a child.

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